Update (March 19 2010): this article was updated for LLVM 2.6 thanks to a great patch by John Harrison. He rocks!
I’ve always been interested in compilers and languages, but interest only gets you so far. A lot of the concepts of compiler design can easily go way over most programmers’ heads, even the intelligent ones. Needless to say, I’ve tried, without much success, to write a small toy language/compiler before. I’d usually get caught up at the semantic parsing stage. And again, needless to say, this post is mostly inspired by my latest attempt, though this one has been much more successful (so far).
Fortunately over the last few years I’ve been involved in someprojects that helped give me perspective and experience on what’s really involved in building a compiler. The other thing I’ve been lucky to have in my corner this time is the help of LLVM, a tool which I’m hardly qualified to talk too much about, but it’s been quite handy in implementing most of the business end (read: complex aspects) of my toy compiler.
So Why Are You Reading This?
Maybe you want to see what I’ve been doing with my time. It’s more likely, however, that you’re probably interested in compilers and languages as I am, and have probably been hitting similar roadblocks. You’ve probably wanted to try this but never found the resources, or did but couldn’t quite follow. The goal of this article is to provide such a resource and explain in a relatively step by step manner how to create the most basic-but-functional compiler from start to “finish”.
I won’t be covering much theory, so if you haven’t brushed up on your BNF grammars, AST data structures and the basic compiler pipeline, I suggest you do so. That said, I plan on keeping this as simple as possible. The goal, of course, is to make this an easy-to-understand introductory resource for people interested but not experienced with compilers.
What You Will End Up With
If you follow this article, you should end up with a language that can define functions, call functions, define variables, assign data to variables and perform basic math operations. It will support two basic types, doubles and integers. Some of the functionality is unimplemented, so you can have the satisfaction of actually implementing some of this stuff yourself and get the hang of writing a compiler with a little help.
Let’s Get Some Questions Out of the Way
1. What languages do I need to know?
The tools we’ll be using are C/C++ based. LLVM is specifically C++ and our toy language will follow suit since there are some niceties of OOP and the STL (C++’s stdlib) that make for fewer lines of code. In addition to C, both Lex and Bison have their own syntax which may seem daunting at first, but I’ll try to explain as much as possible. The grammar we’re dealing with is actually very tiny (~100 LOC), so it should be feasible.
2. Is this really complicated?
Yes and no. There is plenty of stuff going on here and it might seem scary at first, but honestly, this is about as simple as it gets. We will also use a lot of tools to abstract the layers of complexity and make it manageable.
3. How long will it take?
What we will be building took me about 3 days of toying with, but I have a few failed attempts under my belt and those do have impact on my comprehension. Of course, this will be a “follow me” kind of deal, so it should be much shorter for you. To understand completely everything might take a little longer, but you should be able to run through all of this stuff (and hopefully understand a good amount of it) in an afternoon.
So, if you’re ready, let’s get started.
The Basic Compiler Recipe
Although you should already pretty much know this, a compiler is really a grouping of three to four components (there are some more sub-components) where data is fed from one to the next in a pipeline fashion. We will be using a different tool to help us build out each of these components. Here is a diagram of each step and the tool we will use:
You’ll notice the linker step is greyed out. Our toy language won’t be supporting compile time linking (plus most languages don’t do compile time linking anymore anyway). To do our lexing we will be using the open source tool Lex, mostly available these days as Flex. Lexing usually goes hand in hand with semantic parsing, which we’ll be performing with the help of Yacc, better known as Bison. Finally, once semantic parsing is done we can walk over our AST and generate our “bytecode”, or machine code. For this, we’ll be using LLVM, which technically generates intermediate bytecode, but we will be using LLVM’s JIT (Just In Time) compilation to execute this bytecode on our machine.
To summarize, the steps are as follows: Ps4 download for pc.
- Lexical Analysis with Flex: Split input data into a set of tokens (identifiers, keywords, numbers, brackets, braces, etc.)
- Semantic Parsing with Bison: Generate an AST while parsing the tokens. Bison will do most of the legwork here, we just need to define our AST.
- Assembly with LLVM: This is where we walk over our AST and generate byte/machine code for each node. As crazy as it sounds, this is probably the easiest step.
Before moving too far along, you should probably consider installing Flex, Bison and LLVM, if you haven’t already. We’re going to need them pretty soon.
Online Lex And Yacc Compiler Software
Defining Our Grammar
Our grammar is naturally the most central part of our language. From our grammar we inherently allow or disallow functionality. For our toy compiler, we will be using a standard C-like syntax because it’s familiar and simple to parse. The canonical example of our toy language will be the following code:
Looks simple enough. We can see it’s typed the same way C is, but there are no semicolons separating statements. You’ll also notice there is no “return” statement in our grammar; this is something you can implement on your own.
There’s also no mechanism to print any results or anything. We will verify the correctness of our programs by inspecting the very pretty instruction listing that LLVM can print of the bytecode we’ve compiled, but more on that later.
Step 1. Lexical Analysis with Flex
This is the simplest step. Given our grammar, we need to break down our input into a list of known tokens. As mentioned before, our grammar has very basic tokens: identifiers, numbers (integers and floats), the mathematical operators, parentheses and braces. Our lex file “tokens.l”, which has a somewhat specialized grammar, is simply defined as:
Listing of tokens.l:
The first section declares some specialized C code. We use a “SAVE_TOKEN” macro to keep the text of identifiers and numbers somewhere safe (instead of just the token itself), since Bison won’t have access to our ‘yytext’ variable. The first token tells us to skip all whitespace. You’ll also notice that we have some equality comparison tokens and such. Those are unimplemented for now, feel free to support them in your toy compiler!
So all we’re doing here is defining the tokens and their symbolic names. These symbols (TIDENTIFIER, etc.) will become “terminal symbols” in our grammar. We’re just returning them, but we’ve never defined them. Where are they defined? Why, in the bison grammar, of course. The parser.hpp file we’ve included will be generated by bison, and all the tokens inside it will be generated and available for use.
We run Flex on this tokens.l file to generate our “tokens.cpp” file, which will be compiled alongside our parser and provide the yylex() function that recognizes all of these tokens. We will run this command later though, because we need to generate that header file from bison first!
Step 2. Semantic Parsing with Bison
This is the challenging part of our mission. Generating an accurate, unambiguous grammar is not simple and takes a little bit of practice. Fortunately, our grammar is both simple and, for your benefit, mostly completed. Before we get into implementing our grammar, though, we need to talk design for a bit.
Designing the AST
The end product of semantic parsing is an AST. As we will see, Bison is quite elegantly optimized to generate AST’s; it’s really only a matter of plugging our nodes into the grammar.
The same way a string such as “int x” represents our language in text form, our AST is what represents our language in memory (before it is assembled). As such, we need to build up the data structures we will be using before we have the chance of plugging them into our grammar file. This process is pretty straightforward because we are basically creating a structure for every semantic that can be expressed by our language. Method calls, method declarations, variable declarations, references, these are all candidates for AST nodes. A complete diagram of the nodes in our language is as follows:
The C++ that represents the above specifications is:
Listing of node.h:
Again, fairly straightforward. We’re not using any getters or setters here, just public data members; there’s really no need for data hiding. Ignore the codeGen method for now. It will come in handy later, when we want to export our AST as LLVM bytecode.
Back to Bison
Moo. I mean, whatever Bison say. Here’s a short tangent:
Anyway, here comes the most complex part and by the same token, the hardest to explain. It’s not technically complicated, but I’d have to spend a while discussing the details of Bison’s syntax, so let’s take a lot of it for granted right now. Realize this, though: we’ll be declaring the makeup of each of our valid statements and expressions (the ones representing the nodes we’ve defined above) using terminal and non-terminal symbols, basically like a BNF grammar. The syntax is also similar:
The above would define an if statement (if we supported it). The real difference is that with each grammar comes a set of actions (inside the braces) which are executed after it is recognized. This is done recursively over the symbols in leaf-to-root order, where each non terminal is eventually merged into one big tree. The “$$” symbol you will be seeing represents the current root node of each leaf. Furthermore, “$1” represents the leaf for the 1st symbol in the rule. In the above example, the “$$” we assigned from our “condition” rule would be available as “$3” in our “if_stmt” rule. It might start becoming clear how our AST ties into this. We will basically be assigning a node to “$$” at each of our rules which will eventually be merged into our final AST. If not, don’t worry. The Bison part of our toy language is again, the most complex portion of our language. It might take a while to sink in. Besides, you haven’t even seen the code yet, so, here it is:
Listing of parser.y:
Generating Our Code
So we have our “tokens.l” file for Flex and our “parser.y” file for Bison. To generate our C++ source files from these definition files we need to pass them through the tools. Note that Bison will also be creating a “parser.hpp” header file for Flex; it does this because of the
–d
switch, which separates our token declarations from the source so we can include and use those tokens elsewhere. The following commands should create our parser.cpp, parser.hpp and tokens.cpp source files.
If everything went well we should now have 2 out of 3 parts of our compiler. If you want to test this, create a short main function in a main.cpp file:
Listing of main.cpp:
You can then compile your source files:
You will need to have installed LLVM by now for the
llvm::Value
reference in “node.h”. If you don't want to go that far just yet, you can comment out the codeGen() methods in node.h to test just your lexer/parser combo.
If all goes well you should now have a “parser” binary that takes source in stdin and prints out a hopefully nonzero address representing the root node of our AST in memory.
Step 3. Assembling the AST with LLVM
The next step in a compiler is to naturally take this AST and turn it into machine code. This means converting each semantic node into the equivalent machine instruction. LLVM makes this very easy for us, because it abstracts the actual instructions to something that is similar to an AST. This means all we’re really doing is translating from one AST to another.
You can imagine that this process will involve us walking over our AST from our root node, and for each node we emit bytecode. This is where the
codeGen
method that we defined for our nodes comes in handy. For example, when we visit an NBlock
node (semantically representing a collection of statements), we call codeGen
on each statement in the list. It looks like this:
We implement this method for all of our nodes, then call it as we go down the tree, implicitly walking us through our entire AST. We keep a new
CodeGenContext
class around to tell us where to emit our bytecode.
A Big Caveat About LLVM
One of the downsides of LLVM is that it’s really hard to find useful documentation. Their online tutorial and other such docs are wildly out of date, and there’s barely any information for the C++ API unless you really dig for it. If you installed LLVM on your own, check the ‘docs’ as it has “more” up to date documentation.
I’ve found the best way to learn LLVM is by example. There are some quick examples of programmatically generating bytecode in the ‘examples’ directory of the LLVM archive as well, and there’s also the LLVM live demo site which can emit C++ API code for a C program as input. This is a great way to find out what instructions something like “int x = 5;” will emit. I used the demo tool to implement most of the nodes.
Without further ado, I’ll be listing both the codegen.h and codegen.cpp files below.
Listing of codegen.h:
Listing of codegen.cpp
There is certainly a great deal to take in here, however this is the part where you should start exploring on your own. I only have a couple of notes:
- We use a “stack” of blocks in our CodeGenContext class to keep the last entered block (because instructions are added to blocks)
- We also use this stack to keep a symbol table of the local variables in each block.
- Our toy program only knows about variables in its own scope. To support the idea of “global” contexts you’d need to search upwards through each block in our stack until you found a match to the symbol (rather than simply searching the top symbol table).
- Before entering a block we should push the block and when leaving it we should pop it.
The rest of the details are all related to LLVM, and again, I’m hardly an expert on that subject. But at this point, we have all of the code we need to compile our toy language and watch it run.
Building Our Toy Language
We have the code, but how to we build it? LLVM can be complicated to link, fortunately if you installed LLVM you also got an
llvm-config
binary which returns all of the compiler/linker flags you need.
We also need to update our main.cpp file from earlier to actually compile and run our code, this time:
Listing of main.cpp:
Now all we need to do is compile:
You can also grab this Makefile to make things easier:
Listing of Makefile:
Running Our Toy Language
Hopefully everything compiled properly. At this point you should have your parser binary that spits out code. Play with it. Remember our canonical example? Let’s see what our program does.
Isn’t that pretty cool? I’ll admit it’s probably less satisfying to get something running when you just copy paste from a how to guide, but getting this running should still be interesting for you. Plus, and this is the best part, this isn’t the end of the guide, it’s just the beginning, because this is the part where you start tacking on crazy features to this lexer, parser and assembler to create a language that you can call your own. You have all the building blocks, and you should have a basic idea of how to continue on.
The code, by the way, is available on Github here. I avoided saying this because the code was not the point of the article, but rather going over the code in detail was. If you’re just going to grab the code it sort of defeats the purpose of writing your own compiler.
I realize this is a huge article, and there are probably mistakes, so if you run into problems, feel free to send me an email and I’ll make adjustments. If you want to share some info, feel free to do that as well.
Questions? Comments? Follow me on Twitter (@lsegal) or email me.
John R. Levine writes, lectures, and consults on Unix and compiler topics. He moderates the online ers discussion group at Usenet. He worked on . Lex & Yacc has ratings and 5 reviews. This book shows you how to use two Unix utilities, lex and yacc, in program development. These tools help progr. This book shows you how to use two Unix utilities, lex andyacc, in program development. These tools help programmers build compilers and interpreters, but.
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This edition is twice the size of the first and h This book shows you how to use two Unix utilities, lex and yacc john r levine and yacc, in program development. The following material has been added: No eBook available Amazon. The following material has been added: Your recently viewed items and featured recommendations. These tools help programmers build compilers and interpreters, but they also have a wider range pevine applications. Levine writes, f, and consults on Unix and compiler topics.
Lex & Yacc
Previously, he worked with the Distributed Systems Group at Stanford University in the area of distributed operating systems and data communications. However, yacc cannot read from a simple input stream – it requires a series of tokens. Stephen Cook rated it it was ok Aug 23, wnd The second edition contains completely revised tutorial sections for novice users and reference sections Very helpful, lots of useful examples. Published on October 21, On another hand, if you want to build a compiler Want to Read Currently Reading Read.
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Published on March 12, Unfortunately, there is much it does not explain at all. Share your thoughts with other customers. Mongo rated it really liked it Aug 28, The SQL parser example is a loooong source dump; a shorter example would help to focus on principles, and allow room for more liberal commenting. Will re-read aand few more times. Lex and yacc john r levine following material has been added:. Want to Read saving….
Principles, Techniques, and Tools. Amazon Rapids Fun stories for kids on the go. Oisinc rated it really liked it Apr 21, This levne shows you how to use two Unix utilities, lex lex and yacc john r levine yacc, in program development. Yacc uses a formal grammar to parse an input stream, something which lex cannot do using simple regular expressions since lex is limited to simple finite state automata.
Levine writes, lectures, and consults on Unix and compiler topics. The second edition contains completely revised tutorial sections for novice users and reference sections for advanced users.
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The second edition contains completely revised tutorial sections for novice users and reference sections Previously, he worked with the Distributed Systems Group at Stanford University in the area of distributed operating systems and data communications. The following material has been added: As a result, building an application in lex and yacc is often used as an exercise in classes on programming languages and the theory of qnd to lex and yacc john r levine key concepts. Bob rated it liked it Sep 24, LevineLfx MasonDoug Brown.
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TOP Related
I'm having
Lex
and YACC
files to parse my files (.l
file and .y
file).
How to compile those files and how to make equivalent
Enamul Hassan
.c
file for them in windows platform?
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Thorin OakenshieldThorin Oakenshield
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9 Answers
As for today (2011-04-05, updated 2017-11-29) you will need the lastest versions of:
-
After that, do a full install in a directory of your preference without spaces in the name. I suggest
C:GnuWin32
. Do not install it in the default (C:Program Files (x86)GnuWin32) because bison has problems with spaces in directory names, not to say parenthesis. -
Also, consider installing Dev-CPP in the default directory (
C:Dev-Cpp
) -
After that, set the PATH variable to include the bin directories of
gcc
(inC:Dev-Cppbin
) andflexbison
(inC:GnuWin32bin
). To do that, copy this:;C:Dev-Cppbin;C:GnuWin32bin
and append it to the end of thePATH
variable, defined in the place show by this figure:
If the figure is not in good resolution, you can see a step-by-step here. -
Open a prompt, cd to the directory where your '.l' and '.y' are, and compile them with:
flex hello.l
bison -dy hello.y
gcc lex.yy.c y.tab.c -o hello.exe
You will be able to run the program. I made the sources for a simple test (the infamous
Hello World
):
Hello.l
Hello.y
Edited: avoiding 'warning: implicit definition of yyerror and yylex'.
Disclaimer: remember, this answer is very old (since 2011!) and if you run into problems due to versions and features changing, you might need more research, because I can't update this answer to reflect new itens. Thanks and I hope this will be a good entry point for you as it was for many.
Updates: if something (really small changes) needs to be done, please check out the official repository at github: https://github.com/drbeco/hellex
Happy hacking.
Dr BecoDr Beco
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What you (probably want) are Flex 2.5.4 (some people are now 'maintaining' it and producing newer versions, but IMO they've done more to screw it up than fix any real shortcomings) and byacc 1.9 (likewise). (Edit 2017-11-17: Flex 2.5.4 is not available on Sourceforge any more, and the Flex github repository only goes back to 2.5.5. But you can apparently still get it from a Gnu ftp server at ftp://ftp.gnu.org/old-gnu/gnu-0.2/src/flex-2.5.4.tar.gz.)
Since it'll inevitably be recommended, I'll warn against using Bison. Bison was originally written by Robert Corbett, the same guy who later wrote Byacc, and he openly states that at the time he didn't really know or understand what he was doing. Unfortunately, being young and foolish, he released it under the GPL and now the GPL fans push it as the answer to life's ills even though its own author basically says it should be thought of as essentially a beta test product -- but by the convoluted reasoning of GPL fans, byacc's license doesn't have enough restrictions to qualify as 'free'!
rici
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Jerry CoffinJerry Coffin
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There are ports of flex and bison for windows here: http://gnuwin32.sourceforge.net/
flex is the free implementation of lex. bison is the free implementation of yacc.
RBerteig
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lesmanalesmana
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You can find the latest windows version of flex & bison here: http://sourceforge.net/projects/winflexbison/
bakoyaro
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LexxmarkLexxmark
SkurmedelSkurmedel
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Go for the full installation of Git for windows (with Unix tool), and
Archy Will HeArchy Will He
bison
and flex
would come with it in the bin
folder.
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Also worth noting that WinFlexBison has been packaged for the Chocolatey package manager. Install that and then go:
..which at the time of writing contains Bison 2.7 & Flex 2.6.3.
There is also
Alastair MawAlastair Maw
winflexbison3
which (at the time of writing) has Bison 3.0.4 & Flex 2.6.3.
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the easiest method is to download and install cygwin and download gcc and flex packages during installation.Then to run a lex file for eg. abc.l
we write
flex abc.l
gcc lex.yy.c -o abc.exe
./abc.exe
aayush shahaayush shah
I was having the same problem, it has a very simple solution.
Steps for executing the 'Lex' program:
Steps for executing the 'Lex' program:
- Tools->'Lex File Compiler'
- Tools->'Lex Build'
- Tools->'Open CMD'
- Then in command prompt type 'name_of_file.exe' example->'1.exe'
- Then entering the whole input press Ctrl + Z and press Enter.
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Amit Amit
Not the answer you're looking for? Browse other questions tagged windowsbisonyacclexflex-lexer or ask your own question.
I am very new to Lex and Yacc. I have a Lex program. Example:
wordcount.l
I am using windows and putty.
I am just trying to run this file.
-
Does the
wordcount.l
file go on the C drive? -
Do I compile the Lex program and it generates a
.c
program and then what do I run?
I tried on the command-line: Lex
wordcount.l
but I just get file not found..
wordcount.l
In putty how do I compile and run this program?
Farshid
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user249375
2 Answers
You first have to go to the directory which the file
Bilal Syed HussainBilal Syed Hussain
wordcount.l
is in using cd
. Then using lex wordcount.l
will make the file lex.yy.c
. To the run the program you need compile it with a c compiler such as gcc. With gcc you can compile it using gcc -lfl lex.yy.c
. This will create a.out
which can be run using ./a.out
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These also works. I am using this in Ubuntu 14.04.
alhelalalhelal