Architectural design values make up an important part of what influences architects and designers when they make their design decisions. However, architects and designers are not always influenced by the same values and intentions. Value and intentions differ between different architectural movements. It also differs between different schools of architecture and schools of design as well as among individual architects and designers.[1]
(Redirected from Architectural design)
The differences in values and intentions are directly linked to the pluralism in design outcomes that exist within architecture and design. It is also a big contributing factor as to how an architect or designer operates in his/her relation to clients.
Different design values tend to have a considerable history and can be found in numerous design movements. The influence that each design value has had on design movements and individual designers has varied throughout history.
- 1Aesthetic design values
- 2Social design values
- 3Environmental design values
- 4Traditional design values
Aesthetic design values[edit]
The expansion of architectural and industrial design ideas and vocabularies which took place during the last century has created a diverse aesthetic reality within these two domains. This pluralistic and diverse aesthetic reality has typically been created within different architectural and industrial design movements such as: Modernism, Postmodernism, Deconstructivism, Post-structuralism, Neoclassicism, New Expressionism, Supermodernism etc.[2][3][4] All of these aesthetic realities represent a number of divergent aesthetic values, in addition to differences in general values and theories found within these movements.[4] Some of the stylistic distinctions found in these diverse aesthetic realities reflects profound differences in design values and thinking,[4] but this is not the case for all stylistic distinctions, as some stylistic distinctions builds on similar thinking and values.
These aesthetic values and their diverse aesthetic expressions are to some degree a reflection of the development that has taken place in the art community. In addition, more general changes have taken place in Western societies, due to technological development, new economic realities, political changes etc. However, these diverse aesthetic expressions are also a reflection of individual architects and industrial designersâ personal expression, based on designersâ tendency to experiment with form, materials, and ornament to create new aesthetic styles and aesthetic vocabulary. Changes in aesthetic styles and expressions have been, and still are, both synchronic and diachronic, as different aesthetic styles are produced and promoted simultaneously.[4]
A number of values which cannot be classified as aesthetic design values have influenced the development of the aesthetic reality, as well as contributed to the pluralistic aesthetic reality which characterises contemporary architecture and industrial design.
Aesthetic Design Values, contains seven values.
Artistic aspects and self-expression[edit]
It is characterised by a belief that individual self-expressionâor oneâs inner spiritual self and creative imagination, inner resources and intuitionâshould be utilised and/or be the base used when designing.[5] These sentiments are closely linked to a number of artistic values found in movements like Expressionism and the Avant-garde art.[6][7] Thus, this design value is closely related to abstract forms and expression, personal creative liberty, elitism and being ahead of the rest of society.
The spirit of the time design value[edit]
This design value is based on the conception that every age has a certain spirit or set of shared attitudes that should be utilised when designing. The Spirit of the Times denotes the intellectual and cultural climate of a particular era,[8] which can be linked to an experience of a certain worldview, sense of taste, collective consciousness and unconsciousness.[5] Thus âform expressionâ which can be found, to some extent in the âairâ of a given time and each generation, should generate an aesthetic style that expresses the uniqueness related to that time.[9]
The structural, functional and material honesty design value[edit]
Structural Honesty is linked to the notion that a structure shall display its âtrueâ purpose and not be decorative etc.[9] Functional honesty is linked to the idea that a building or product form shall be shaped on the basis of its intended function, often known as âform follows functionâ. Material honesty implies that materials should be used and selected on the bases of their properties,[10] and that the characteristics of a material should influence the form it is used for.[11] Thus, a material must not be used as a substitute for another material as this subverts the materials âtrueâ properties and it is âcheatingâ the spectator.[12]
The simplicity and minimalism design value[edit]
This design value is based on the idea that simple forms, i.e. aesthetics without considerable ornaments, simple geometry, smooth surfaces etc., represents forms which are both truer to ârealâ art and represents âfolkâ wisdom.[13][14] This design value implies that the more cultivated a person becomes, the more decoration disappears. In addition, it is linked to the notion that simple forms will free people from the everyday clutter, thus contribute to tranquillity and restfulness.[15]
Nature and organic design value[edit]
This design value is based on the idea that nature (i.e. all sorts of living organisms, numerical laws etc.) can provide inspiration, functional clues and aesthetic forms that architects and industrial designers should use as a basis for designs.[16][17] Designs based on this value tend to be characterized by free-flowing curves, asymmetrical lines and expressive forms. This design value can be summed up in âform follows flowâ or âof the hillâ as opposed to âon the hillâ.[17]
The classic, traditional and vernacular aesthetics design value[edit]
This value is based on a belief that a building and product should be designed from timeless principles that transcend particular designers, cultures and climates.[5] Implicit in this design value is the notion that if these forms are used, the public will appreciate a structureâs timeless beauty and understand immediately how to use a given building or product.[18] This design value is also linked to regional differences i.e. varying climate etc. and folklore cultures, which creates distinctive aesthetical expressions.[19]
The regionalism design value[edit]
This design value is based on the belief that buildingâand to some degree productsâshould be designed in accordance with the particular characteristics of a specific place.[19] In addition, it is linked to the aim of achieving visual harmony between a building and its surroundings, as well as achieving continuity in a given area.[20] In other words, it strives to create a connection between past and present forms of building. Finally, this value is also often related to preserving and creating regional and national identity.[21]
Social design values[edit]
Many architects and industrial designers have a strong motivation to serve the public good and the needs of the user population.[22] Moreover, social awareness and social values within architecture and design reflect, to some degree, the emphasis these values are given in society at large.
It should be noted that social values can have an aesthetical impact, but these aspects will not be explored as the main aesthetical impact found in design has been covered in the previous sections. Social design values are at times in conflict with other design values. This type of conflict can manifest itself between different design movements, but it can also be the cause of conflicts within a given design movement. It can be argued that conflicts between social values and other design values often represent the continuing debate between Rationalism and Romanticism commonly found within architecture and industrial design.[23]
The Social Design Values category consisting of four design values.
The social change design value[edit]
This design value can be described as a commitment to change society for the better through architecture and industrial design.[24][25] This design value is closely connected and associated with political movements and subsequent building programs.[26] Architects and industrial designers that are committed to the design value of social change often see their work as a tool for transforming the built environment and those who live in it.[27]
The consultation and participation design value[edit]
This design value is based on a belief that it is beneficial to involve stakeholders in the design process.[27] This value is connected to a belief that user involvement leads to:
- Meeting social needs and an effective use of resources.[27]
- Influencing in the design process as well as awareness of the consequences etc.[27][28]
- Providing relevant and up-to-date information for designers.[27][29]
The crime prevention design value[edit]
This design value is based on the belief that the built environment can be manipulated to reduce crime levels,[30] which is attempted accomplished through three main strategies that are:
- Defensible space.[31][32]
- Crime prevention through environmental design.[32]
- Situational crime prevention.[32][33]
The 'Third world' design value[edit]
This is based on an eagerness to help developing countries through architecture and design (i.e. a response to the needs of the poor and destitute within the Third World).[34][35] This design value implies that social and economic circumstances found in the Third World necessitate the development of special solutions, which are distinct from what the same architects and industrial designers would recommend for the developed world.[36][37]
Environmental design values[edit]
The 20th century has been marked by the re-emergence of environmental values within Western societies.[citation needed] Concern for the environment is not new and can be found to a varying degree throughout history, and it is rooted in a number of perspectives including the aim of managing the ecosystems for sustained resource yields (sustainable development), and the idea that everything in nature has an intrinsic value (nature protection and preservation). Generally behind these types of thinking are the concepts of stewardship and that the present generation owes duties to generations not yet born.[18][38]
Environmental problems and challenges found in the 19th and 20th centuries led to a development where environmental values became important in some sections of Western societies. It is therefore not surprising[according to whom?] that these values can also be found among individual architects and industrial designers. The focus on environmental design has been marked with the rediscovery and further development of many âancientâ skills and techniques.[citation needed] In addition, new technology that approaches environmental concerns is also an important characteristic of the environmental approach found among architects and industrial designers. These rather different approaches to environmental building and product technology can be illustrated with the development of environmental high-tech architecture, and the more âtraditionalâ environmental movement within is ecological based architecture.[39]
Environmental technology, along with new environmental values, have affected development in cities across the world. Many cities have started to formulate and introduce 'eco-regulations concerning renewable resources, energy consumption, sick buildings, smart buildings, recycled materials, and sustainability'.[39] This may not be surprising, as about 50% of all energy consumption in Europe and 60% in the US is building-related.[39] However, environmental concerns are not restricted to energy consumption; environmental concerns take on a number of perspectives generally, which are reflected in the focus found among architects and industrial designers.
The environmental design values category consists of three design values.
Green and sustainability[edit]
This value is based on a belief that a sustainable and/or environmentally friendly building approach is beneficial to users, society and future generations.[40] Key concepts within this design value are: energy conservation, resource management, recycling, cradle-to-cradle, toxic free materials etc.[18][41][42][43]
Re-use and modification[edit]
This is based on a belief that existing buildings, and to some degree products, can be continuously used through updates.[44] Within this value there are two separate schools of thought with regards to aesthetics: one camp focuses on new elements that are sublimated to an overall aesthetic, and the other advocates for aesthetical contrast, dichotomy and even dissonance between the old and the new.[45]
Health[edit]
This design value is based on the belief that the built environment can contribute to ensuring a healthy living environment.[46][47] Built into this design value, are principles like: buildings should be freestanding; sites need to be distributed to maximize the amount of sunlight that reaches individual structures.[46] Similarly, there is an emphasis on health based construction and reduction of toxic emissions through selection of appropriate materials.[48]
Traditional design values[edit]
Within both architecture and industrial design there is a long tradition of being both inspired by and re-use design elements of existing buildings and products. This is the case even if many architects and industrial designers argue that they are primarily using their creativity to create new and novel design solutions. Some architects and industrial designers have openly led themselves be inspired by existing building and products traditions, and have even used this inspiration as the main base for their designs solutions.
This design tradition has a considerable history, which can be indicated in many of the labels associated with this tradition; this includes labels such as Classicism, Vernacular, Restoration and Preservation etc. In addition, as indicated in the previous section âClassic, Traditional and Vernacular aestheticsâ, an important element of this tradition is to re-use and be inspired by already existing aesthetical elements and styles. However, the traditional approach also implies other aspects such as functional aspects, preserving existing building traditions as well as individual buildings and products.
The Traditional Design Values category, consisting of three distinct values.
The tradition based design value[edit]
This relies on a belief that traditional âdesignsâ are the preferred typology and template for buildings and products, because they âcreateâ timeless and âfunctionalâ designs.[49] Within this design value there are three main strategies:
- Critical traditionalist/regionalist i.e. interpreting the traditional typologies and templates and applying them in an abstracted modern vocabulary.[50]
- Revivalists i.e. adhering to the most literal traditional form.[50]
- Contextualists who use historical forms when the surroundings âdemandsâ it.[50]
The design value of restoration and preservation[edit]
This is based on a commitment to preserve the best of buildings and products for future generations.[45][51] This design value tends to represent restoring a building or product to its initial design and is usually rooted in three perspectives.[52] These are:
- An archaeological perspective (i.e. preserving buildings and products of historical interest).[51]
- An artistic perspective i.e. a desire to preserve something of beauty.[51]
- A social perspective (i.e. a desire to hold on to the familiar and reassuring).[51]
The vernacular design value[edit]
This value is based on a belief that a simple life and its design, closely linked to nature, are superior to that of modernity.[53][54] The design value of Vernacular includes key concept such as:
- Reinvigorating tradition (i.e. evoking the vernacular).
- Reinventing tradition i.e. the search for new paradigms.
- Extending tradition i.e. using the vernacular in a modified manner.
- Reinterpreting tradition i.e. the use of contemporary idioms.[55]
Gender-based design values[edit]
This design values is closely linked to the feminist movement and theory developed within the 19th and 20th centuries.[56][57] Design values based on gender are related to three tenets found in architecture and industrial design,[58] which are:
- Gender differences related to critique and reconstruction of architectural practice and history.[59]
- The struggle for equal access to training, jobs and recognition in architecture and design.[59]
- The focus on gender based theories for the built environment, the architectural discourse, and cultural value systems.[59]
Designers that adhere to the Design values based on gender typically have a focus on creating buildings that do not have the same barriers that children, parents and the elderly experience in much of the built environment.[57] It also implies a focus on aesthetics that are deemed to be more 'feminine' than the 'masculine' aesthetics often created by male designers.
The economic design value[edit]
Many architects and industrial designers often dread the financial and business side of architecture and industrial design practice, as their focus is often geared towards achieving successful design quality rather than achieving successful economic expectations.[60][61]
This is the basis for a design value that can be characterised as 'voluntarism' or 'charrette ethos'.[62] This value is commonly found among practising architects and designers. The 'volunteer' value is founded in the belief that good architecture and design requires commitment beyond the prearranged time, accountantâs budget, and normal hours.[63] Implicit in the 'volunteer' value are elements of the following claim present:
- Best design works comes from offices or individual designers which are willing to put in overtime (sometimes unpaid) for the sake of the design outcome.[63]
- Good architecture and design is rarely possible within fees offered by clients.[63]
- Architects and designers should care enough about buildings or products to uphold high design standards regardless of the payment offered.[63]
The 'volunteer' design value can be seen as a reaction to and a rejection of the clientâs influence and control over the design project.
The novel design value[edit]
It is common within contemporary architecture and industrial design to find emphasis on creating novel design solutions. This emphasis is often accompanied by an equally common lack of emphasis on studying of the appropriateness of any already existing design solution.[64]
The novel design value has historical roots dating back to early design movements such as Modernism, with is emphasis on âstarting from zeroâ.[65] The celebration of original and novel design solutions is, by many designers and design scholars, considered one of the main aspects of architecture and design. This design value is often manifested through the working methods of designers. Some architects and designers with their emphasis on the âbig ideaâ will have a tendency to cling to major design ideas and themes, even if these themes and ideas are faced with insurmountable challenges.[66][67][68] However, the emphasis on design novelty is also associated with progress and new design solutions that, without this emphasis, would not see the light of day.
The design value of novelty is not generally accepted within either architecture or design. This is indicated by the debate in architecture, focusing on whether buildings should harmonize with the surroundings in that they are situated in or not.[69] Equally is the debate where architecture should be based on traditional topology and design styles i.e. classical and vernacular base architecture or if it should be an expression of its time. The same issues are indicated within the industrial design domain where it has been debated if retro design should be accepted or not as good design.
Mathematical and scientific design values[edit]
A movement to base architectural design on scientific and mathematical understanding started with the early work of Christopher Alexander in the 1960s, Notes on the synthesis of form. Other contributors joined in, especially in investigations of form on the urban scale, which resulted in important developments such as Bill Hillier's Space syntax and Michael Batty's work on Spatial analysis. In architecture, the four-volume work The Nature of Order by Alexander summarizes his most recent results. An alternative architectural theory based on scientific laws, as for example A Theory of Architecture is now competing with purely aesthetic theories most common in architectural academia. This entire body of work can be seen as balancing and often questioning design movements that rely primarily upon aesthetics and novelty. At the same time, the scientific results that determine this approach in fact verify traditional and vernacular traditions in a way that purely historical appreciation cannot.
Social and environmental issues are given a new explanation, drawing upon biological phenomena and the interactivity of groups and individuals with their built environment. The new discipline of biophilia developed by E. O. Wilson plays a major role in explaining the human need for intimate contact with natural forms and living beings. This insight into the connection between human beings and the biological environment provides a new understanding for the need for ecological design. An extension of the biophilic phenomenon into artificial environments suggests a corresponding need for built structures that embody the same precepts as biological structures. These mathematical qualities include fractal forms, scaling, multiple symmetries, etc. Applications and extensions of Wilson's original idea are now carried out by Stephen R. Kellert in the Biophilia hypothesis, and in by Nikos Salingaros and others in the book 'Biophilic Design'.
See also[edit]
Further reading[edit]
- Bartlett School of Planning, University College London. A bibliography of design value for The Commission for Architecture and the Built Environment
- Holm, Ivar (2006). Ideas and Beliefs in Architecture and Industrial design: How attitudes, orientations, and underlying assumptions shape the built environment. Oslo School of Architecture and Design. ISBN82-547-0174-1.[1]
- BIOPHILIC DESIGN: THE THEORY, SCIENCE AND PRACTICE OF BRINGING BUILDINGS TO LIFE, edited by Stephen R. Kellert, Judith Heerwagen, and Martin Mador (John Wiley, New York, 2008). ISBN978-0-470-16334-4
- LERA, S. G. (1980). Designers' values and the evaluation of designs. PhD thesis, Department of Design Research. London, Royal College of Art. [2]
- THOMPSON, I. H. (2000). Ecology, community and delight: sources of values in landscape architecture. London, E & FN Spon. ISBN0-419-25150-2.
References[edit]
- ^Holm, Ivar (2006). Ideas and Beliefs in Architecture and Industrial design: How attitudes, orientations, and underlying assumptions shape the built environment. Oslo School of Architecture and Design. ISBN82-547-0174-1.'Archived copy'(PDF). Archived from the original(PDF) on 2011-07-24. Retrieved 2010-05-20.CS1 maint: Archived copy as title (link)
- ^KRIEGER, P. (2004) Contextualism. IN SENNOTT, R. S. (Ed.) Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture. New York, Fitzroy Dearborn.
- ^STEER, L. M. (2004) Supermodernism. IN SENNOTT, R. S. (Ed.) Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture. New York, Fitzroy Dearborn.
- ^ abcdFLORES, C. A. H. (2004) Symbolism. IN SENNOTT, R. S. (Ed.) Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture. New York, Fitzroy Dearborn.
- ^ abcGelernter, M. (1995). Sources of architectural form: a critical history of Western design theory. Manchester, Manchester University Press.
- ^Fedders, K. (2004). Archigram. Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture. R. S. Sennott. New York, Fitzroy Dearborn. 1: 57 - 58.
- ^Heynen, H. (2004). Avant-garde. Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture. R. S. Sennott. New York, Fitzroy Dearborn. 1: 97 - 99.
- ^Hume, D. (1965). Of the standard of taste: and other essays. Indianapolis, The Bobbs-Merrill Company.
- ^ abBrolin, B. C. (2000). Architectural ornament: banishment and return. New York, Norton.
- ^KAUFMANN, E. (1955) Architecture in the age of reason; baroque and postbaroque in england, italy, and france, Cambridge, Harvard University Press.
- ^NESBITT, K. (1996) Theorizing a new agenda for architecture: an anthology of architectural theory 1965-1995, New York, Princeton Architectural Press.
- ^WHITELEY, N. (1993) Design for society, London, Reaktion Books.
- ^TOY, M. (1999) EDITORIAL. IN TOY, M. (Ed.) Aspects of minimal architecture II. London, Academy Editions.
- ^RUBY, I. & RUBY, A. (2003) Essential, Meta-, Trans-. The Chimeras of Minimalist Architecture. IN RUBY, I. (Ed.) Minimal architecture. Munich, Prestel.
- ^SILVESTRIN, C. (1999) Royal Academy and AD International Forum, Something or Nothing: Minimalism in Art and Architecture 8. IN TOY, M. (Ed.) Aspects of minimal architecture II. London, Academy Editions.
- ^ALDERSEY-WILLIAMS, H. (2003) Zoomorphic : new animal architecture, London, Laurence King Publ.
- ^ abPEARSON, D. (2001) New organic architecture: the breaking wave, Berkeley, University of California Press.
- ^ abcBEATLEY, T. & WHEELER, S. M. (2004) The sustainable urban development reader, London, Routledge.
- ^ abGELERNTER, M. & DUBRUCQ, V. (2004) Regionalism. IN SENNOTT, R. S. (Ed.) Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture. New York, Fitzroy Dearborn.
- ^ABEL, C. (1997) Architecture and identity: towards a global eco-culture, Oxford, Architectural Press.
- ^LEFAIVRE, L. & TZONIS, A. (2003) Critical regionalism: architecture and identity in a globalized world, Munich, Prestel.
- ^SYMES, M., ELEY, J. & SEIDEL, A. D. (1995) Architects and their practices: a changing profession, Oxford, Butterworth Architecture.
- ^JOHNSON, D. L. (2004) Rationalism. IN SENNOTT, R. S. (Ed.) Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture. New York, Fitzroy Dearborn.
- ^ZIPF, C. W. (2004) Arts and crafts movement. IN SENNOTT, R. S. (Ed.) Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture. New York, Fitzroy Dearborn.
- ^HUGHES, R. (1991) The shock of the new art and the century of change, London, Thames and Hudson.
- ^HATCH, C. R. (1984) The scope of social architecture, New York, Van Nostrand Reinhold.
- ^ abcdeSANOFF, H. (2000) Community participation methods in design and planning, New York, Wiley.
- ^PREISER, W. F. E., WHITE, E. T. & RABINOWITZ, H. Z. (1988) Post-occupancy evaluation, New York, Van Nostrand Reinhold.
- ^ZIMRING, C. M. & REIZENSTEIN, J. E. (1981) A Primer on post occupancy evaluation: uses and techniques of an increasingly valued tool. Architecture (AIA Journal), 70, 52 - 54.
- ^PRESS, M., COOPER, R. & EROL, R. (2001) Design as a tool for social policy: the case of 'design against crime'. The Fourth European Academy of Design Conference. Aveiro Portugal.
- ^NEWMAN, O. (1972) Defensible space: crime prevention through urban design, New York, Macmillan.
- ^ abcCOLQUHOUN, I. (2004) Design out crime: creating safe and sustainable communities, Amsterdam, Elsevier.
- ^WEKERLE, G. R. & WHITZMAN, C. (1995) Safe cities: guidelines for planning, design, and management, New York ; London, Van Nostrand Reinhold.
- ^SERAGELDIN, I. (1997) The architecture of empowerment a survey. IN SERAGELDIN, I. (Ed.) The Architecture of empowerment : people, shelter and livable cities. London, Academy Editions.
- ^STRASSMANN, P. W. (1998) Third world housing. IN VAN VLIET, W. (Ed.) The Encyclopedia of housing. Thousand Oaks, Calif, Sage Publications.
- ^YUNUS, M. (1997) Foreword. IN SERAGELDIN, I. (Ed.) The Architecture of empowerment : people, shelter and livable cities. London, Academy Editions.
- ^ÃZKAN, S. (1997) Architecture to change the world? IN SERAGELDIN, I. (Ed.) The Architecture of empowerment : people, shelter and livable cities. London, Academy Editions.
- ^THOMPSON, I. H. (2000) Aesthetic, social and ecological values in landscape architecture: a discourse analysis. Ethics, place and environment, 3, 269-287.
- ^ abcCUFF, D. (2000) Epilogue. IN KOSTOF, S. (Ed.) The Architect : chapters in the history of the profession. Berkeley, Calif., University of California Press.
- ^MCDONALD, M. K. (2004) Sustainability and sustainable architecture. IN SENNOTT, R. S. (Ed.) Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture. New York, Fitzroy Dearborn.
- ^MOSTAEDI, A. (2002) Sustainable architecture: low tech houses, Barcelona, Carles Broto i Comerma.
- ^MOSTAEDI, A. (2003) Sustainable architecture: high tech housing, Barcelona, Carles Broto i Comerma.
- ^WINES, J. & JODIDIO, P. (2000) Green architecture, Köln, Taschen.
- ^KALNER, S. (2004) Adaptwe re-use. IN SENNOTT, R. S. (Ed.) Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture. New York, Fitzroy Dearborn.
- ^ abPOWELL, K. (1999) Architecture reborn: the conversion and reconstruction of old buildings, London, Laurence King.
- ^ abFRANK, L. D., ENGELKE, P. O. & SCHMID, T. L. (2003) Health and community design: the impact of the built environment on physical activity, Washington, DC, Island Press.
- ^BARTON, H., TSOUROU, C. & WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION. REGIONAL OFFICE FOR, E. (2000) Healthy urban planning: a WHO guide to planning for people, London, Published on behalf of the World Health Organization Regional.
- ^BAKER-LAPORTE, P., ELLIOTT, E. & BANTA, J. (2001) Prescriptions for a healthy house: a practical guide for architects, builders, and homeowners, Santa Fe, InWord Press.
- ^AMUNDSON, J. A. & MILLER, C. C. (2004) Classicism. IN SENNOTT, R. S. (Ed.) Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture. New York, Fitzroy Dearborn.
- ^ abcTILMAN, J. T. (2004) Historicism. IN SENNOTT, R. S. (Ed.) Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture. New York, Fitzroy Dearborn.
- ^ abcdROSS, M. (1996) Planning and the heritage: policy and procedures, London, E & FN Spon.
- ^TOMLAN, M. A. (2004) Historic preservation. IN SENNOTT, R. S. (Ed.) Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture. New York, Fitzroy Dearborn.
- ^OLIVER, P. (2004) Vernacular Architecture. IN SENNOTT, R. S. (Ed.) Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture. New York, Fitzroy Dearborn.
- ^MORTON, P. (2004) Primitivism. IN SENNOTT, R. S. (Ed.) Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture. New York, Fitzroy Dearborn.
- ^RUDOFSKY, B. (1964) Architecture without architects: a short introduction to non-pedigree architecture, New York, Doubleday.
- ^WEISMAN, L. K. (1992) Discrimination by design: a feminist critique of the man-made environment, Urbana, University of Illinois Press.
- ^ abWEISMAN, L. K. (2000) Prologue: 'women's environmental rights: a manifesto'. IN BORDEN, I., RENDELL, J. & PENNER, B. (Eds.) Gender space architecture: an interdisciplinary introduction. London, Routledge.
- ^ATTFIELD, J. (1989) Form/female follows function/male: Feminist critiques of design. IN WALKER, J. A. & ATTFIELD, J. (Eds.) Design history and the history of design. London, Pluto.
- ^ abcMORTON, P. (2004) Feminist Theory. IN SENNOTT, R. S. (Ed.) Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture. New York, Fitzroy Dearborn.
- ^PYE, D. (1978) The nature and aesthetics of design, London, Barrie & Jenkins.
- ^JACKSON, L. (Ed.) (1992) Strategic study of the profession: phase 1: strategic overview, London, Royal Institute of British Architects.
- ^BLAU, J. R. (1984) Architects and firms: a sociological perspective on architectural practice, Cambridge, Massachusetts, MIT Press.
- ^ abcdCUFF, D. (1991) Architecture: the story of practice, Cambridge, Massachusetts, MIT Press.
- ^PORTER, D. (2000) Why do architects wear black? thinking beyond the trap. IN TOFT, A. E. (Ed.) Ethics in architecture : architectural education in the epoch of virtuality. [Leuven], European Association for Architectural Education.
- ^WOLFE, T. (1981) From bauhaus to our house, London, Picador.
- ^LAWSON, B. (1997) How designers think: the design process demystified, Oxford, Architectural Press.
- ^ROWE, P. G. (1987) Design thinking, Cambridge, Massachusetts, MIT Press.
- ^CROSS, N. (2004) Expertise in design: an overview. Design Studies, 25, 427 - 441.
- ^COLLINS, P. (1971) Architectural judgement, London, Faber & Faber.
Retrieved from 'https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Architectural_design_values&oldid=882253339'
English vernacular building, 16th-century half-timbering and later buildings
The Shotgun house is an example of an American vernacular: A pair of single shotgun houses, dating to the 1920s, in the Campground Historic District of Mobile, Alabama
Stone and clay houses in rural Nepal
A traditional Batak house, Sumatra, Indonesia
A set of motel units resembling traditional 'rustic' building practices near Mt. Rainier National Park in Washington state. Because vernacular architecture is often considered the common architecture of a particular time or place, buildings that recall an 'original' vernacular also can be considered vernacular in themselves. Commercial buildings that attempt to lure passersby, such as motels, gas stations, and restaurants, often draw upon vernacular traditions.
Vernacular architecture is architecture characterised by the use of local materials and knowledge, usually without the supervision of professional architects. Vernacular buildings are typically simple and practical, whether residential houses or built for other purposes.[1]
Although it encompasses 95% of the world's built environment,[2] vernacular architecture tends to be overlooked in traditional histories of design. It is not one specific style, so it cannot be distilled into a series of easy-to-digest patterns, materials, or elements.[3] Because of the usage of traditional building methods and local builders, vernacular buildings are considered part of a regional culture.
Vernacular architecture can be contrasted against elite or polite architecture which is characterized by stylistic elements of design intentionally incorporated for aesthetic purposes which go beyond a building's functional requirements. This article also covers the term traditional architecture, which exists somewhere between the two extremes yet still is based upon authentic themes.[4]
-
4Influences on the vernacular
- 4.2Culture
- 8Gallery
Etymology[edit]
The term vernacular means 'domestic, native, indigenous'; from verna, meaning 'native slave' or 'home-born slave'. The word probably derives from an older Etruscan word.[5][6][7]
The term is borrowed from linguistics, where vernacular refers to language use particular to a time, place or group.[8][9][10]
Definitions[edit]
Vernacular architecture is described as a built environment that is based upon local needs; defined by the availability of particular materials indigenous to its particular region; an reflects local traditions and cultural practices. Traditionally, the study of vernacular architecture did not examine formally schooled architects, but instead that of the design skills and tradition of local builders, who were rarely given any attribution for the work. More recently, vernacular architecture has been examined by designers and the building industry in an effort to be more energy conscious with contemporary design and construction--part of a broader interest in sustainable design.
The terms vernacular, folk, traditional, common, ordinary, and popular architecture are sometimes used interchangeably. However, Allen Noble wrote a lengthy discussion of these terms in Traditional Buildings: A Global Survey of Structural Forms and Cultural Functions where he presents scholarly opinions that folk building or folk architecture is built by 'persons not professionally trained in building arts'; where vernacular architecture is still of the common people but may be built by trained professionals such as through an apprenticeship, but still using local, traditional designs and materials. Traditional architecture is architecture is passed down from person to person, generation to generation, particularly orally, but at any level of society, not just by common people. Noble discourages use of the term primitive architecture as having a negative connotation.[11] The term popular architecture is used more in eastern Europe and is synonymous with folk or vernacular architecture.[12]
Although vernacular architecture might be designed by people who do have some training in design, Ronald Brunskill has nonetheless defined vernacular architecture as:
..a building designed by an amateur without any training in design; the individual will have been guided by a series of conventions built up in his locality, paying little attention to what may be fashionable. The function of the building would be the dominant factor, aesthetic considerations, though present to some small degree, being quite minimal. Local materials would be used as a matter of course, other materials being chosen and imported quite exceptionally.[13]
Vernacular architecture is not to be confused with so-called 'traditional' architecture, though there are links between the two. Traditional architecture also includes buildings which bear elements of polite design: temples and palaces, for example, which normally would not be included under the rubric of 'vernacular.' In architectural terms, 'the vernacular' can be contrasted with 'the polite', which is characterised by stylistic elements of design intentionally incorporated by a professional architect for aesthetic purposes which go beyond a building's functional requirements.[14] Between the extremes of the wholly vernacular and the completely polite, examples occur which have some vernacular and some polite content,[15] often making the differences between the vernacular and the polite a matter of degree.
Dwelling of half-timbered construction on stone foundation, La Rioja, Spain
The Encyclopedia of Vernacular Architecture of the World defines vernacular architecture as:
..comprising the dwellings and all other buildings of the people. Related to their environmental contexts and available resources they are customarily owner- or community-built, utilizing traditional technologies. All forms of vernacular architecture are built to meet specific needs, accommodating the values, economies and ways of life of the cultures that produce them.[16]
Vernacular architecture is a broad, grassroots concept which encompasses fields of architectural study including aboriginal, indigenous, ancestral, rural, and ethnic architecture[17] and is contrasted with the more intellectual architecture called polite, formal, or academic architecture just as folk art is contrasted with fine art.
William,[14] after Brunskill, regards the 'Vernacular Zone' as being a range of buildings between two thresholds: the Vernacular and the Polite.[18] These were below the Polite Threshold, but also had to be above the Vernacular Threshold. Buildings cruder than this did not survive, and so were not recorded. This was due to both their unimportance and the lack of attention paid to them, also to the insubstantial nature of their poor materials. A survey in the 1940s by Sir Cyril Fox and Lord Raglan examined 450 'old' cottages in Monmouthshire expected to date them to the medieval period. However careful study dated them to the late eighteenth century or later: 'cottages'[i] earlier than this had simply not survived.[14][19]
Vernacular and the architect[edit]
Architecture designed by professional architects is usually not considered to be vernacular. Indeed, it can be argued that the very process of consciously designing a building makes it not vernacular. Paul Oliver, in his book Dwellings, states: '..it is contended that 'popular architecture' designed by professional architects or commercial builders for popular use, does not come within the compass of the vernacular'.[20]:15 Oliver also offers the following simple definition of vernacular architecture: 'the architecture of the people, and by the people, but not for the people.'[20]:14
Frank Lloyd Wright described vernacular architecture as 'Folk building growing in response to actual needs, fitted into environment by people who knew no better than to fit them with native feeling'.[20]:9 suggesting that it is a primitive form of design, lacking intelligent thought, but he also stated that it was 'for us better worth study than all the highly self-conscious academic attempts at the beautiful throughout Europe'.
A post-World War II dwelling at the Big Pasture Plateau, Slovenia, designed by the architect Vlasto KopaÄ and based on the vernacular architecture of this mountainous area.
Since at least the Arts and Crafts Movement, many modern architects have studied vernacular buildings and claimed to draw inspiration from them, including aspects of the vernacular in their designs. In 1946, the Egyptian architect Hassan Fathy was appointed to design the town of New Gourna near Luxor. Having studied traditional Nubian settlements and technologies, he incorporated the traditional mud brick vaults of the Nubian settlements in his designs. The experiment failed, due to a variety of social and economic reasons, but is the first recorded attempt by an architect to address the social and environmental requirements of building users by adopting the methods and forms of the vernacular.[20]:11
In 1964 the exhibition Architecture Without Architects was put on at the Museum of Modern Art, New York by Bernard Rudofsky. Accompanied by a book of the same title, including black-and-white photography of vernacular buildings around the world, the exhibition was extremely popular. It was Rudofsky who first made use of the term vernacular in an architectural context, and brought the concept into the eye of the public and of mainstream architecture: 'For want of a generic label we shall call it vernacular, anonymous, spontaneous, indigenous, rural, as the case may be.'[21] However, the range of studies about vernacular architecture since the book's publication suggests that Rudofsky's characterization was limiting and problematic; indeed, quite often vernacular architecture is not anonymous and designed in very intentional ways that are learned through generations of practice and based upon the availability of particular materials and profoundly affected by climate (and, thus, not 'spontaneous.')
Since the emergence of the term in the 1970s, vernacular considerations have played an increasing part in architectural designs, although individual architects had widely varying opinions of the merits of the vernacular.
Sri Lankan architect Geoffrey Bawa is considered the pioneer of regional modernism in South Asia. Along with him, modern proponents of the use of the vernacular in architectural design include Charles Correa, a well known Indian architect; Muzharul Islam and Bashirul Haq, internationally known Bangladeshi architects; Balkrishna Doshi, another Indian, who established the Vastu-Shilpa Foundation in Ahmedabad to research the vernacular architecture of the region; and Sheila Sri Prakash who has used rural Indian architecture as an inspiration for innovations in environmental and socio-economically sustainable design and planning. The Dutch architect Aldo van Eyck was also a proponent of vernacular architecture.[20]:13 Architects whose work exemplifies the modern take on vernacular architecture would be Samuel Mockbee, Christopher Alexander and Paolo Soleri.
Oliver claims that:
As yet there is no clearly defined and specialized discipline for the study of dwellings or the larger compass of vernacular architecture. If such a discipline were to emerge it would probably be one that combines some of the elements of both architecture and anthropology with aspects of history and geography[20][clarification needed]
Architects have developed a renewed interest in vernacular architecture as a model for sustainable design.[22]
Influences on the vernacular[edit]
House in Brgule, Serbia
Vernacular architecture is influenced by a great range of different aspects of human behaviour and environment, leading to differing building forms for almost every different context; even neighbouring villages may have subtly different approaches to the construction and use of their dwellings, even if they at first appear the same. Despite these variations, every building is subject to the same laws of physics, and hence will demonstrate significant similarities in structural forms.
Climate[edit]
One of the most significant influences on vernacular architecture is the macro climate of the area in which the building is constructed. Buildings in cold climates invariably have high thermal mass or significant amounts of insulation. They are usually sealed in order to prevent heat loss, and openings such as windows tend to be small or non-existent. Buildings in warm climates, by contrast, tend to be constructed of lighter materials and to allow significant cross-ventilation through openings in the fabric of the building.
A log cabin in the region of Kysuce (Slovakia) - an example of vernacular architecture in relatively cold mountain climate using local materials (wood).
Buildings for a continental climate must be able to cope with significant variations in temperature, and may even be altered by their occupants according to the seasons. In hot arid and semi-arid regions, vernacular structures typically include a number of distinctive elements to provide for ventilation and temperature control. Across the middle-east, these elements included such design features as courtyards gardens with water features, scree n walls, reflected light, mashrabiya (the distinctive oriel window with timber lattice-work) and bad girs (wind-catchers).[23]
Queenslander, Australia
Buildings take different forms depending on precipitation levels in the region â leading to dwellings on stilts in many regions with frequent flooding or rainy monsoon seasons. For example, the Queenslander is an elevated weatherboard house with a sloped, tin roof that evolved in the early 19th-century as a solution to the annual flooding caused by monsoonal rain in Australia's northern states.[24] Flat roofs are rare in areas with high levels of precipitation. Similarly, areas with high winds will lead to specialised buildings able to cope with them, and buildings tend to present minimal surface area to prevailing winds and are often situated low on the landscape to minimise potential storm damage.
Climatic influences on vernacular architecture are substantial and can be extremely complex. Mediterranean vernacular, and that of much of the Middle East, often includes a courtyard with a fountain or pond; air cooled by water mist and evaporation is drawn through the building by the natural ventilation set up by the building form. Similarly, Northern African vernacular often has very high thermal mass and small windows to keep the occupants cool, and in many cases also includes chimneys, not for fires but to draw air through the internal spaces. Such specializations are not designed, but learned by trial and error over generations of building construction, often existing long before the scientific theories which explain why they work. Vernacular Architecture is also used for the purposes of local citizens.
Culture[edit]
The way of life of building occupants, and the way they use their shelters, is of great influence on building forms. The size of family units, who shares which spaces, how food is prepared and eaten, how people interact and many other cultural considerations will affect the layout and size of dwellings.
For example, the family units of several East African ethnic communities live in family compounds, surrounded by marked boundaries, in which separate single-roomed dwellings are built to house different members of the family. In polygamous communities there may be separate dwellings for different wives, and more again for sons who are too old to share space with the women of the family. Social interaction within the family is governed by, and privacy is provided by, the separation between the structures in which family members live. By contrast, in Western Europe, such separation is accomplished inside one dwelling, by dividing the building into separate rooms.
Culture also has a great influence on the appearance of vernacular buildings, as occupants often decorate buildings in accordance with local customs and beliefs.
Nomadic dwellings[edit]
Stilt houses in Cempa, located in the Lingga Islands of Indonesia.
A Yurt or ger, a circular dwelling from Mongolia, during erection
An unfinished Igloo, an Inuit winter dwelling
There are many cultures around the world which include some aspect of nomadic life, and they have all developed vernacular solutions for the need for shelter. These all include appropriate responses to climate and customs of their inhabitants, including practicalities of simple construction such as huts, and if necessary, transport such as tents.
The Inuit people have a number of different forms of shelter appropriate to different seasons and geographical locations, including the igloo (for winter) and the tupiq (for summer). The Sami of Northern Europe, who live in climates similar to those experienced by the Inuit, have developed different shelters appropriate to their culture[20]:25 including the lavvu and goahti. The development of different solutions in similar circumstances because of cultural influences is typical of vernacular architecture.
Many nomadic people use materials common in the local environment to construct temporary dwellings, such as the Punan of Sarawak who use palm fronds, or the Ituri Pygmies who use saplings and mongongo leaves to construct domed huts. Other cultures reuse materials, transporting them with them as they move. Examples of this are the tribes of Mongolia, who carry their gers (yurts) with them, or the black desert tents of the Qashgai in Iran.[20]:29 Notable in each case is the significant impact of the availability of materials and the availability of pack animals or other forms of transport on the ultimate form of the shelters.
All the shelters are adapted to suit the local climate. The Mongolian gers (yurts), for example, are versatile enough to be cool in hot continental summers and warm in the sub-zero temperaturs of Mongolian winters, and include a close-able ventilation hole at the centre and a chimney for a stove. A ger is typically not often relocated, and is therefore sturdy and secure, including wooden front door and several layers of coverings. A traditional Berber tent, by contrast, might be relocated daily, and is much lighter and quicker to erect and dismantle â and because of the climate it is used in, does not need to provide the same degree of protection from the elements.
-
Tuareg tent during Colonial exhibition in 1907.
-
A tipi of the Nez Perce tribe, circa 1900.
-
Arab Beduin tent from North Africa. Similar tents are also used by Arabs in the Middle East as well as by Persian and Tibetan nomads.
-
A Berber tent near Zagora, Morocco
-
In transhumance (the seasonal movement of people with their livestock to pasture) the herders stay in huts or tents.
-
Interior of a mudhif; a reed dwelling used by Iraqi people of the marshlands
Permanent dwellings[edit]
A Southern African rondavel (or banda)
The type of structure and materials used for a dwelling vary depending on how permanent it is. Frequently moved nomadic structures will be lightweight and simple, more permanent ones will be less so. When people settle somewhere permanently, the architecture of their dwellings will change to reflect that.
Materials used will become heavier, more solid and more durable. They may also become more complicated and more expensive, as the capital and labour required to construct them is a one-time cost. Permanent dwellings often offer a greater degree of protection and shelter from the elements. In some cases however, where dwellings are subjected to severe weather conditions such as frequent flooding or high winds, buildings may be deliberately 'designed' to fail and be replaced, rather than requiring the uneconomical or even impossible structures needed to withstand them. The collapse of a relatively flimsy, lightweight structure is also less likely to cause serious injury than a heavy structure.
Over time, dwellings' architecture may come to reflect a very specific geographical locale.
Canadian Railway Style[edit]
Railway stations built in Canada in the 19th and early 20th Centuries were often simple wood structures that lacked decorative features. Some of these stations survive today but not as active railway stations.
List of these styles include:
- Old Unionville Station c. 1871 by Toronto and Nipissing Railway and now for community usage
- Markham GO Station c. 1871 by Toronto and Nipissing Railway and partially used as railway stop
- Aurora GO Station c. 1900 by Grand Trunk Railway and still used as railway stop
- Maple GO Station c. 1903 by Grand Trunk Railway and still used as railway stop; mixture of Carpenter Gothic and Queen Anne style architecture
- Newmarket GO Station c. 1900 by Grand Trunk Railway
Environment, construction elements and materials[edit]
The local environment and the construction materials it can provide, govern many aspects of vernacular architecture. Areas rich in trees will develop a wooden vernacular, while areas without much wood may use mud or stone. In early California redwood water towers supporting redwood tanks and enclosed by redwood siding (tankhouses) were part of a self-contained wind-powered domestic water system. In the Far East it is common to use bamboo, as it is both plentiful and versatile. Vernacular, almost by definition, is sustainable, and will not exhaust the local resources. If it is not sustainable, it is not suitable for its local context, and cannot be vernacular.
Construction elements and materials frequently found in vernacular buildings include:
- Adobe - a type of mud brick, often covered with white-wash, commonly used in Spain and Spanish colonies
- Bad girs -a type of chimney used to provide natural ventilation, commonly found in Iran, Iraq and other parts of the Middle-East
- Cob - a type of plaster made from subsoil with the addition of fibrous material to give added strength
- Mashrabiya - (also known as shanashol in Iraq) - a type of oriel window with timber lattice-work, designed to allow ventilation, commonly found in Iraq and Egypt in upper-class homes
- Mud bricks - loam or sand mixed with water and vegetable matter such as straw
- Rammed earth often used in foundations
- Thatch - dry vegetation used as roofing material
- Wychert - a blend of white earth and clay
Literature[edit]
Following the eclipse by International Modernism of turn-of-the 20th century vernacular-inspired British and American Arts and Crafts buildings and European National Romanticism, an early work in the renewed defense of vernacular was Bernard Rudofsky's 1964 book Architecture Without Architects: a short introduction to non-pedigreed architecture, based on his MoMA exhibition. The book was a reminder of the legitimacy and 'hard-won knowledge' inherent in vernacular buildings, from Polish salt-caves to gigantic Syrian water wheels to Moroccan desert fortresses, and was considered iconoclastic at the time. Rudofsky was, however, very much a Romantic who viewed native populations in a historical bubble of contentment. Rudofsky's book was also based largely on photographs and not on on-site study.
A more nuanced work is the Encyclopedia of Vernacular Architecture of the World edited in 1997 by Paul Oliver of the Oxford Institute for Sustainable Development. Oliver argues that vernacular architecture, given the insights it gives into issues of environmental adaptation, will be necessary in the future to 'ensure sustainability in both cultural and economic terms beyond the short term.' Christopher Alexander, in his book A Pattern Language, attempted to identify adaptive features of traditional architecture that apply across cultures. Howard Davis's book The Culture of Building details the culture that enabled several vernacular traditions.
Some extend the term vernacular to include any architecture outside the academic mainstream. The term 'commercial vernacular', popularized in the late 1960s by the publication of Robert Venturi's 'Learning from Las Vegas', refers to 20th-century American suburban tract and commercial architecture. There is also the concept of an 'industrial vernacular' with its emphasis on the aesthetics of shops, garages and factories. Some have linked vernacular with 'off-the-shelf' aesthetics. In any respect, those who study these types of vernaculars hold that the low-end characteristics of this aesthetic define a useful and fundamental approach to architectural design.
Among those who study vernacular architecture are those who are interested in the question of everyday life and those lean toward questions of sociology. In this, many were influenced by The Practice of Everyday Life (1984) by Michel de Certeau.
Humanitarian response[edit]
'Sutyagin House', a wooden single-family house â declared illegal by the city of Arkhangelsk because of the fire hazard
An appreciation of vernacular architecture is increasingly seen as vital in the immediate response to disasters and the following construction of transitional shelter if it is needed. The work Transitional Settlement: Displaced Populations, produced by Shelter Centre covers the use of vernacular in humanitarian response and argues its importance.
The value of housing displaced people in shelters which are in some way familiar is seen to provide reassurance and comfort following often very traumatic times. As the needs change from saving lives to providing medium to long term shelter the construction of locally appropriate and accepted housing can be very important.[25]
Legal aspects[edit]
As many jurisdictions introduce tougher building codes and zoning regulations, 'folk architects' sometimes find themselves in conflict with the local authorities.
A case that made news in Russia was that of an Arkhangelsk entrepreneur Nikolay P. Sutyagin, who built what was reportedly the world's tallest single-family wooden house for himself and his family, only to see it condemned as a fire hazard. The 13-storey, 44 m (144 ft) tall[26][27] structure, known locally as 'Sutyagin's skyscraper' (ÐебоÑкÑÑб СÑÑÑгина), was found to be in violation of Arkhangelsk building codes, and in 2008 the courts ordered the building to be demolished by February 1, 2009.[26][28] On December 26, 2008, the tower was pulled down,[29][30] and the remainder was dismantled manually[31] over the course of the next several months.[32]
Gallery[edit]
Africa[edit]
-
Rondavel in Cameroon.
-
Traditional houses in Tanzania
-
Maasai house in Tanzania
-
Loam houses in the High Atlas, Aït Bouguemez
-
A house in Timbuktu.
Anatolia[edit]
-
Basalt tuff, rock-cut architecture in Cappadocia, found in central Anatolia and parts of Iran.
-
Tholoi type homes have been constructed for millennia in Mesopotamia, like these found in Harran.
-
Timber framed house in Safranbolu, as found in northern Anatolia and European Ottoman territories.
-
Late Ottoman wooden Yali, a type found on the Bosphorus shore and on the Princess Islands.
-
A typical alpine chalet as found in the Pontic Mountains and parts of the Caucasus.
Central Asia[edit]
-
Ayil - Herding House in the Altai Mountains
-
Kazakh Yurt in the Altai
-
A house made of bark - Aalachic. ÐлÑай
-
Shepherd's house in the mountains. Kosh-Agach
-
North-Western Mongolia, Ãlgii city
-
Animal Farm in the Altai Mountains
-
Stone Yurt in Mongolia
-
Telengits yurt in Altai
Middle East[edit]
-
Traditional Yemeni house in Sana'a.
-
Traditional Yemeni house in Sana'a.
-
Traditional architecture of the Hejaz, Al-Balad, Jeddah.
-
Replica of a vernacular house in Dubai, including a windcatcher.
-
Traditional brick house of Iran and Central Asia, Tabriz.
-
The mashrabiya (a type of oriel window) is a characteristic feature of upper-class homes across the region as in this example from Jerusalem
South Asia[edit]
-
The origin of the vernacular bungalow has its roots in Bengal.
-
The Naulakha Pavilion in Lahore Fort, Pakistan, features a Do-chala roof originating in Bengal.[33]
-
Bhimakali temple, built in Kath-Kuni style of architecture, Indian vernacular architecture.
-
Limboo house in Hee- kengbari village in West Sikkim, Sikkim, India.
Far East Asia[edit]
-
Wang Family Compound in Lingshi, Shanxi
-
Siheyuan in Beijing
-
Downtown in Suzhou
-
Mansion in Zhejiang
-
Hongcun in Anhui
-
Village in Jiangxi
-
Traditional house in Fujian
-
Lane in Guangdong
Southeast Asia and Austronesian[edit]
-
A traditional house, Nias Island, Sumatra, Indonesia.
-
Rumah Lancang or Rumah Lontiok style, a traditional Malay house from Riau, Sumatra, Indonesia.
-
Pagaruyung Palace is an opulent example of Rumah Gadang, vernacular house of the Minangkabau people, Sumatra, Indonesia
-
House of the chief of a village in Kabanjahe shows the vernacular architecture of North SumatranKaro people.
-
A village of tongkonan, the house of Toraja people, Sulawesi, Indonesia.
-
A nipa hut, the traditional house of the Philippines
-
Bahay na bato houses in the cultural and historical areas of the Philippines
Australia and New Zealand[edit]
-
Moscow Villa Hut, Victorian Alps, Australia
-
'Queenslanders' in Brisbane, Australia
-
Wharenui Meeting House of the MÄori people, Te Papaiouru Marae, New Zealand. 1908
Europe[edit]
-
A traditional village house near Kstovo, Russia.
-
Timber-cutter's mountain log cabin at the Museum of Folk Architecture, Pyrohiv, Ukraine.
-
Payerhütte in the Ortler Alps, Italy
-
The Blackhouse Museum, Arnol, Isle of Lewis. Scotland
-
Casa do Penedo, Portugal
-
Defensive housing in Shatili, Georgia
-
Old houses in Sighnaghi, Georgia
-
Welsh thatched longhouse, named Swtan, dating back to the 16th century. Anglesey, Wales
-
Fishermen huts in Altja, Estonia
North America[edit]
-
Replica log cabin at Valley Forge, USA
-
Apache Wickiup
-
The Maison Bequette-Ribault, a French style building in Ste. Geneviève, Missouri.
-
Maison Bolduc, in Ste. Geneviève, Missouri is a grander building in the same style as the Maison Bequette-Ribault.
-
The Lasource-Durand house in Ste. Geneviève, Missouri.
-
A house on Gabouri Creek in Ste. Geneviève, Missouri.
-
Quonset huts in front of Laguna Peak, Point Mugu, California, United States in 1946.
-
Slave cabin, Arundel Plantation, Georgetown County, South Carolina
-
An abandoned and decaying example of Southern American Rural Vernacular architecture commonly seen in the 1800s and 1900s, surviving well into the 21st Century
South America[edit]
-
A Mar del Plata style chalet, with its traditional facade of locally extracted orthoquartzite in Mar del Plata, Argentina
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Vernacular architecture by country. |
Vernacular architecture: types and examples by region[edit]
Mashrabiya (or shanashol window) in the old city of Basra, 1954
Mudhif, photo by Gertrude Bell 1918 or 1920
Museum of Decorative Finishes in Pereiaslav-Khmelnytskyi
Iraq
- Desert castles - (in Arabic, known as q'sar) fortified palaces or castles built during the Umayyad period, the ruins of which are now scattered across the semi-arid regions of north-eastern Jordan, Syria, Israel and Iraq. These often served as hunting lodges for noble families.[34]
- Mudhif - a traditional building constructed entirely of reeds and common to the Marsh Arabs of southern Iraq. Many were destroyed by Saddam Hussein, but since 2003, Arab communities have been returning to their traditional homes and way of life.[35]
Germany
Dec 10, 2016 ADDITIONAL UNITS MOD (AUM-EMP) 3.7 - adds 90 custom units, 32 custom ships, 4 Field Marshalls and 63 ORNAMENTUM units to Empire Total War. Four AUM versions are available: DarthMod, A Proper Empire:Terra Incognita, Imperial Splendor and vanilla standard Empire optional 'Graphics Pack 1.8' available with re-textures of vanilla units and ships. Please read the. Additional Units Mod - Empire (AUM-EMP) Mar 14 2018 Released 2009 Turn Based Strategy ADDITIONAL UNITS MOD (AUM-EMP) 3.7 - adds 90 custom units, 32 custom ships, 4 Field Marshalls and 63 ORNAMENTUM units to Empire Total War. Four AUM.
Scotland
- Bastle houses - a multi-storey, fortified farmhouses with sophisticated security measures designed to provide defense against the frequent raiding parties along the Scottish border.[36]
- Blackhouse- a traditional dry-stone walls building, roofed with thatch of turf, a flagstones floor and central hearth, designed to accommodate livestock and people, separated by a partition.[37]
- Crofters cottage -a simple construction of stone walls filled with earth for insulation, a thatched or turf roof and stone slabs were set into the middle of the room for a peat fire which provided some form of central heating. An unusual croft house Brotchie's Steading, Dunnet was built with whale bone couples.[38]
- Cruck house: A medieval structure designed to cope with shortages of long-span timber. The frame of the structure uses 'siles' or 'couples' (a type of fork) for the end walls. The walls do not support the roof, which is instead carried on the cruck frame. This type of building is common throughout England, Scotland and Wales, although only a few intact examples have survived.[39]
- Shieling- a type of temporary hut (or a collection of huts) constructed of stone, sod and turf used as a dwelling during the Summer months when highlanders took their livestock to higher ground in search of new pasture.[40]
- Tower houses or peel tower.- a medieval building, typically of stone, constructed by the aristocratic classes as a defensible residence.[41]
- Turf houses - e.g. East Ayrshire, Medieval turf house
Spain
- Adobe houses - mudbrick buildings found in Spain and Spanish colonies
United States
- Creole architecture in the United States - a type of house or cottage common along the Gulf Coast and associated rivers, especially in southern Louisiana and Mississippi.[42]
- Vernacular Architecture of Rural and Small-Town Missouri, by Howard Wight Marshall[43]
- Earl A. Young (born March 31, 1889 â May 24, 1975) was an American architect, realtor and insurance agent. Over a span of 52 years, he designed and built 31 structures in Charlevoix, Michigan but was never a registered architect.[44][45] He worked mostly in stone, using limestone, fieldstone,[46] and boulders he found throughout Northern Michigan. The homes are commonly referred to as gnome homes, mushroom houses, or Hobbit houses.[44][45] His door, window, roof and fireplace designs were very distinct because of his use of curved lines. Young's goal was to show that a small stone house could be as impressive as a castle. Young also helped make Charlevoix the busy, summer resort town that it is today.[45][47]
Ukraine
Different regions in Ukraine have their own examples of vernacular architecture. For example, in the Carpathian Mountains and the surrounding foothills, wood and clay are the primary traditional building materials. Ukrainian architecture is preserved at The Museum of Folk Architecture and Way of Life of Central Naddnipryanshchyna located in Pereiaslav-Khmelnytskyi, Ukraine.
Wales
See also[edit]
House types:
Architectural elements
Building techniques and materials:
Organizations:
Regional vernacular architecture:
|
Examples:
People:
|
References[edit]
- ^i.e. the homes of married labourers, rather than servants
- ^Fewins, Clive. 'What is Vernacular Style?'. Homebuilding & Renovating. Retrieved 23 May 2019.
- ^Amos Rapoport, House Form and Culture (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1969), 2.
- ^J. Philip Gruen, âVernacular Architecture,â in Encyclopedia of Local History, 3d edition, ed. Amy H. Wilson (Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield, 2017): 697-98.
- ^Holm, 2006
- ^'Vernacular'. online etymology dictionary. Retrieved 2007-12-24.
- ^'Vernacular(noun)'. yourdictionary.com. Retrieved 2007-12-24.
- ^'Fiddling with words, again!'. Tribune India. June 8, 2002. Retrieved 2007-12-24.
- ^Dictionary.com definition
- ^Cambridge advanced learner's dictionary definition
- ^MerriamâWebster definition
- ^Noble, Allen George. Traditional buildings: a global survey of structural forms and cultural functions. London: I. B. Tauris, 2007. 1-17. Print.ISBN9781845113056.
- ^The meanings in this paragraph are supported by the Oxford English Dictionary Second Edition on CD-ROM (v. 4.0) © Oxford University Press 2009. Vernacular, a. and n., 6.; Folk 2. a.; Tradition, n., 4. a.; Traditional, a. (n.), 1. a.; Popular, a.(n.), 2. a.
- ^Brunskill (1971), pp. 27â28.
- ^ abcWilliam (2010), p. 241.
- ^Brunskill (1971), p. 28.
- ^Encyclopedia of Vernacular Architecture of the World, volume 1, page not cited
- ^http://www.vernaculararchitecture.com/[permanent dead link], a site which is part of http://www.ethnoarchitecture.org/Archived 2013-05-07 at the Wayback Machine accessed 5/2/2013
- ^Brunskill (1971), pp. 25â29.
- ^Fox & Raglan (1954), p. 210.
- ^ abcdefghOliver, Paul (2003). Dwellings. London: Phaidon Press. p. 15. ISBN0-7148-4202-8.
- ^Rudofsky, Architecture Without Architects, page 58
- ^Forster, W., Heal, A. and Paradise, C., 'The Vernacular as a Model for Sustainable Design' Chapter 14 in: W. Weber, S. Yannas, Lessons from Vernacular Architecture, Routledge, 2013
- ^Vernacular architecture at archINFORM
- ^Osborne, Lindy. 'Sublime design: the Queenslander'. Architecture & Design. Retrieved 24 February 2018.
- ^'NGOs criticise tsunami shelters'BBC News â 22 December 2006
- ^ abSutyagin House, Arkhangelsk, Russia: Standing tall. WorldArchitectureNews.com, Wednesday 07 Mar 2007. (Includes photo)
- ^According to other sources, 12 stories, 38 m (125 ft)
- ^Ponomaryova, Hope (26 June 2008). ÐангÑÑеÑ-Ñ Ð°ÑÑ: СамÑй вÑÑокий деÑевÑннÑй дом в РоÑÑии обÑÑвлен вне закона [Gangster house: Russia's tallest wooden house is now outlawed]. Rossiiskaya Gazeta (in Russian). Moscow, Russia. Retrieved 2009-08-15.
- ^Ð ÐÑÑ Ð°Ð½Ð³ÐµÐ»ÑÑке пÑовалилаÑÑ Ð¿ÐµÑÐ²Ð°Ñ Ð¿Ð¾Ð¿ÑÑка ÑнеÑÑи Ñамое вÑÑокое деÑевÑнное здание в миÑе [In Arkhangelsk failed first attempt to demolish the tallest wooden building in the world]. NEWSru.com Realty (ÐедвижимоÑÑÑ) (in Russian). Moscow, Russia. 26 December 2008. Retrieved 2009-08-15.
- ^mihai055 (December 26, 2008). СÑÑÑгин, ÑÐ½Ð¾Ñ Ð´Ð¾Ð¼Ð° [Sutyagin, demolition of houses] (Flash video) (in Russian). YouTube. Retrieved 2009-08-15.
- ^Ð ÐÑÑ Ð°Ð½Ð³ÐµÐ»ÑÑке ÑазÑÑÑено Ñамое вÑÑокое деÑевÑнное здание в миÑе [In Arkhangelsk destroyed the tallest wooden building in the world]. NEWSru.com Realty (ÐедвижимоÑÑÑ) (in Russian). Moscow, Russia. 6 February 2009. Retrieved 2009-08-15.
- ^ÐÑ Ñамого вÑÑокого деÑевÑнного ÑÑÑÐ¾ÐµÐ½Ð¸Ñ Ð² миÑе оÑÑалаÑÑ Ð³ÑÑда мÑÑоÑа [From the highest wooden structure in the world was left a pile of garbage] (flash video and text). Channel One Russia (in Russian). Moscow, Russia: Web-ÑлÑжбой ÐеÑвого канала. 6 February 2009. Retrieved 2009-08-15.
- ^Dani, Ahmad Hasan; Masson, Vadim MikhaÄlovich; Unesco (2003-01-01). History of Civilizations of Central Asia: Development in contrast : from the sixteenth to the mid-nineteenth century. UNESCO. ISBN9789231038761.
- ^Khouri, R.G., The Desert Castles: A Brief Guide to the Antiquities, Al Kutba, 1988. pp 4-5
- ^Broadbent, G., 'The Ecology of the Mudhif,' in: Geoffrey Broadbent and C. A. Brebbia, Eco-architecture II: Harmonisation Between Architecture and Nature, WIT Press, 2008, pp 21-23
- ^Brunskill, R. W., Houses and Cottages of Britain: Origins and Development of Traditional Buildings, Victor Gollancz & Peter Crawley, 1997, pp 28-29
- ^Holden, 2004
- ^Holden, 2003, pages 85-86
- ^Dixon, P., 'The Medieval Peasant Building in Scotland: The Beginning and End of Crucks', Ruralia IV 2003, pp 187â200, Online
- ^Cheape, H., 'Shielings in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland: Prehistory to the Present,' Folk Life,Journal of Ethnological Studies, vol. 35, no. 1, 1996, pp 7-24, DOI: 10.1179/043087796798254498
- ^Mackechnie, A., 'For Friendship and Conversation': Martial Scotland's Domestic Castles,' Architectural Heritage, XXVI, 2015, p. 14 and p, 21
- ^Gamble, Robert Historic Architecture in Alabama: A Guide to Styles and Types, 1810-1930, page 180. Tuscaloosa, Alabama: The University of Alabama Press, 1990. ISBN0-8173-1134-3.
- ^'vernacular architecture of missouri'. Missourifolkloresociety.truman.edu. Retrieved 2013-09-02.
- ^ abHuyser-Honig, Joan (November 14, 1993). 'Do Gnomes Live Here?'. The Ann Arbor News. Archived from the original on February 19, 2010. Retrieved March 8, 2011.
- ^ abcMiles, David L (writer); Hull, Dale (narrator) (2009). The Life and Works of Earl Young, Charlevoix's Master Builder in Stone (DVD). Charlevoix Historical Society. OCLC505817344.
- ^Eckert, Kathryn Bishop (1993). Buildings in Michigan. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 418. ISBN0-19-506149-7.
- ^Kelly, Anne (January 1, 2010). 'Earl Young and Don Campbell, Pals Who Shaped Charlevoix: The story of Earl Young, creator of Charlevoix's Hobbit Houses, and his lifelong friend Don Campbell, who traveled the world and ultimately shaped Charlevoix together'. My North.com. Retrieved March 13, 2011.
Sources and further reading[edit]
- Bourgeois, Jean-Louis (1983). Spectacular vernacular: a new appreciation of traditional desert architecture. Salt Lake City: Peregrine Smith Books. ISBN0-87905-144-2. Large format.
- Brunskill, R.W. (2006) [1985]. Traditional Buildings of Britain: An Introduction to Vernacular Architecture. Cassell's. ISBN0-304-36676-5.
- Brunskill, R.W. (2000) [1971]. Illustrated Handbook of Vernacular Architecture (4th ed.). London: Faber and Faber. ISBN0-571-19503-2.
- Clifton-Taylor, Alec (1987) [1972]. The Pattern of English Building. London: Faber and Faber. ISBN0-571-13988-4. Clifton-Taylor pioneered the study of the English vernacular.
- Fox, Sir Cyril; Raglan, Lord (1954). Renaissance Houses. Monmouthshire Houses. III. Cardiff.
- Holden, Timothy G; Baker, Louise M. The Blackhouses of Arnol. Edinburgh: Historic Scotland. ISBN1-904966-03-9.
- Holden, Timothy G (2003). 'Brotchie's Steading (Dunnet parish), iron age and medieval settlement; post-medieval farm'. Discovery and Excavation in Scotland (4): 85â86.
- Holm, Ivar. 2006 [Ideas and Beliefs in Architecture and Industrial design: How attitudes, orientations, and underlying assumptions shape the built environment]. Oslo School of Architecture and Design. ISBN82-547-0174-1.
- Mark Jarzombek, Architecture of First Societies: A Global Perspective, (New York: Wiley & Sons, August 2013)
- Oliver, Paul (2003). Dwellings. London: Phaidon Press. ISBN0-7148-4202-8.
- Oliver, Paul (ed.). Encyclopedia of Vernacular Architecture of the World. 1. ISBN978-0-521-58269-8.
- Perez Gil, Javier (2016). ¿Que es la arquitectura vernacula? Historia y concepto de un patrimonio cultural especifico. Valladolid: Universidad de Valladolid. ISBN978-84-8448-862-0.
- Pruscha, Carl, ed. (2005) [2004]. [Himalayan Vernacular]. Köln: Verlag Der Buchhandlung Walther König. ISBN3-85160-038-X. Carl Pruscha, Austrian architect and United Nations-UNESCO advisor to the government of Nepal, lived and worked in the Himalayas 1964â74. He continued his activities as head of the design studio 'Habitat, Environment and Conservation' at the Academy of Fine Arts in Vienna.
- Rudofsky, Bernard (1987) [1964]. Architecture Without Architects: A Short Introduction to Non-Pedigreed Architecture. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. ISBN0-8263-1004-4.
- Rudofsky, Bernard (1969). Streets for People: A Primer for Americans. Garden City, NY: Doubleday. ISBN0-385-04231-0.
- Upton, Dell and John Michael Vlach, eds. Common Places: Readings in American Vernacular Architecture. Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press, 1986. ISBN0-8203-0749-1.
- Wharton, David. 'Roadside Architecture.'Southern Spaces, February 1, 2005, http://southernspaces.org/2005/roadside-architecture.[permanent dead link]
- William, Eurwyn (2010). The Welsh Cottage. Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Wales. ISBN978-1-871184-426.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Vernacular architecture. |
- Vernacular Architecture and Landscape Architecture Research Guide â Environmental Design Library, University of California, Berkeley
Retrieved from 'https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vernacular_architecture&oldid=903650175'
Retro style is a style that is imitative or consciously derivative of lifestyles, trends, or art forms from the historical past, including in music, modes, fashions, or attitudes. It may also be known as 'vintage inspired'.[citation needed]
-
2Specific types of retro
- 2.6Media and culture
Definition[edit]
The term retro has been in use since the 1960s to describe[1] on the one hand, new artifacts that self-consciously refer to particular modes, motifs, techniques, and materials of the past.[2] But on the other hand, many people use the term to categorize styles that have been created in the past.[3] Retro style refers to new things that display characteristics of the past. Unlike the historicism of the Romantic generations, it is mostly the recent past that retro seeks to recapitulate, focusing on the products, fashions and artistic styles produced since the Industrial Revolution, the successive styles of Modernity.[4] The English word retro derives from the Latin prefix retro, meaning backwards, or in past times.
American Vernacular Architecture
In France, the word rétro, an abbreviation for rétrospectif,[5] gained cultural currency with reevaluations of Charles de Gaulle and France's role in World War II. The French mode rétro of the 1970s reappraised in film and novels the conduct of French civilians during the Nazi occupation. The term rétro was soon applied to nostalgic French fashions that recalled the same period.[6]
Shortly thereafter retro was introduced into English by the fashion and culture press, where it suggests a rather cynical revival of older but relatively recent fashions.[7] In Simulacra and Simulation, French theorist Jean Baudrillard describes retro as a demythologization of the past, distancing the present from the big ideas that drove the modern age.[8]
Most commonly retro is used to describe objects and attitudes from the recent past that no longer seem modern. It suggests a fundamental shift in the way we relate to the past. Different from more traditional forms of revivalism, 'retro' suggests a half ironic, half longing consideration of the recent past; it has been called an 'unsentimental nostalgia',[9] recalling modern forms that are no longer current. The concept of nostalgia is linked to retro, but the bittersweet desire for things, persons, and situations of the past has an ironic stance in retro style. Retro shows nostalgia with a dose of cynicism and detachment.[10] The desire to capture something from the past and evoke nostalgia is fuelled by dissatisfaction with the present.[11]
Retro can be applied to several things and artifacts, for example, forms of technological obsolescence (such as manual typewriters, cash registers, and bulky hand-held cellphones) and also the resurrection of old computer games and the equipment on which they are played.[citation needed]
Specific types of retro[edit]
Since the 1980s the implications of the word âretroâ have been expanding[12] in the application to different media. Several fields have adopted the term retro from the design world. Thus next to design artifacts like objects, graphic design, fashion and interior design, âretroâ can be used for: music, film, art, video games, architecture, television and food. Sometimes, it can also suggest an entire outlook on life (describing especially forms of social conservatism like homeschooling or the embrace of traditional gender roles).
Objects[edit]
Up until the 1960s, interiors were often decorated with antiques. During the 1960s in London, shops started selling pieces of second-hand furniture. These shops were different from the previous antique shops because they sold daily life objects from the recent past. These objects used to be seen as junk: Victorian enamel signs, stuffed bears, old furniture painted with union jacks, bowler hats etc. A new way of producing and consuming the past emerged and a broader range of objects from the recent past was used for new designs.[13]
Before the word âretroâ came into use in the 1970s, the practice of adopting old styles for new designs was already common. Throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, designers borrowed from the past, for example, classicistic style.[14] The difference is that since the 1960s people started to refer to the recent past.
In the 1980s, design history emerged as a discipline and several histories of design were published. The access to these overviews and the ability to experiment with computer design programs has caused an increase of retro designed objects in the last decades.[15]
Interior design[edit]
IKEA produced a retro lamp, referring to the 1970s.
Interior design magazines often show retro style as an interior decoration of mixed styles and objects from the past, second hand and new. For example, 1970s patterned wallpapers, combined with second-hand furniture from the 1960s and 1950s. The value of old artifact has increased because the object used to be considered old-fashioned and every day.[16] In this case âretroâ indicates a value and that is also partly why todayâs retailers produce new objects in an old style.
Graphic design, typography, and packaging[edit]
In graphic design too, long before the use of the word âretroâ, referencing to earlier graphic characteristics was done. William Morris can be seen as an example, for i.a. book design he adopted Medieval production and stylistic models in 1891.[17] Furthermore, in the beginning of the twentieth century, Gothic, Baroque and Rococo motifs were used for new products.[18] In typographyclassicism has always been an influence and throughout the 20th century, early woodcut printing too. The introduction of the technique of photocomposition to typesetting in the 1960s allowed typographers greater flexibility in the selection and arrangement of type styles and sizes. For example, psychedelic typefaces were developed gaining inspiration from Art Nouveau and other cultures.[19] Historicist styles are also used is in the promotion and packaging of food and household products, referring to childhood memories and domestic nostalgic ideals.[20]
Fashion design[edit]
A 1940s retro-style dress with turban, designed in a modern electric blue, modeled by Karlie Kloss at a 2011 Anna Sui show
The terms 'retro fashion' and 'vintage fashion' are sometimes used interchangeably and therefore can cause confusion as to what is really meant. The term 'retro fashion' (also known as 'vintage inspired') refers to new clothing, shoes, and accessories that are designed to resemble clothing, shoes, and accessories that are at least 13 years old or older. 'Vintage fashion' (or 'vintage clothing') refers to the original (old) clothing the new designs are based on. So in simple terms, new clothes that look old are called 'retro' and clothes that look old because they are old are called 'vintage'.
An example of retro fashion is 1970s and 1980s sportswear; soccer jackets, jerseys, and T-shirts with former logos of the soccer associations are very popular; their designs commonly remember the old days by using lines in the sides and combinations of colors characteristic of those times. A specific case is the 1970 FIFA World Cup held in Mexico. Its logo and font type are used in a variety of retro sports garments. Brands such as Adidas, Puma and Nike have their own divisions specialized in retro products. Some soccer, baseball and basketball clubs also have re-edited their former garments to raise their sales. See also Throwback uniform.
In the early 2010s, there was a revival of pastel and neon colors, stereotypically associated with 1980s and early 1990s fashion (with the 1980s pastel revival itself actually being a rebirth of a 1950s trend). Also in the early 2010s, late 1980's style high waisted mom jeans made a comeback with female hipsters. Nowadays, 1990s fashion has made a comeback, many of the fabrics and patterns ubiquitous to the decade (such as crushed velvet and floral) are popular now in the 2010s. Dr. Martens, a shoe brand popular in the 1990s has also made a strong comeback in the early 2010s. 2011â12 was the British company's best selling season of all time.[21]
When an older style of athletic shoe is manufactured again by a shoe company years or decades later it is referred to as a 'reissue'.
Retro art[edit]
A 1950s-era poster in pop-art style, the style on which retro art is based
The style now called 'retro art' is a genre of pop art which was developed in the 1940s and 1950s, in response to a need for bold, eye-catching graphics that were easy to reproduce on simple presses available at the time in major centres. Retro advertising art has experienced a resurgence in popularity since its style is distinctive from modern computer-generated styling. Contemporary artist Anne Taintor uses retro advertising art as the centerpiece for her ongoing commentary on the modern woman. Specific styling features include analog machine design, vintage television program etc.[22]
Perhaps the most famous example of a retro pop-art character is the more generalized form of the Ward Cleaver-styled J. R. 'Bob' Dobbs-esque icon which has been widely played off, copied, and parodied.
Media and culture[edit]
Film, music, fashion, and television[edit]
The 1970s brought about a 1950sâearly 60s revival with American Graffiti, Grease, and Happy Days. This lasted into the 1980s with the rockabilly revival. The 1950s greaser look greatly influenced the punk subculture.
The 1980s and early-to-mid 1990s witnessed a 1960s revival with Hairspray, Grease 2, Mermaids, Matinee, That Thing You Do!, Shag, a revival of the cartoon series The Jetsons with new episodes and a movie, the power pop of the decade being influenced by 1960s pop rock, the garage rock revival (with bands like The Cynics), and 1960s hits covered by various artists. Examples of such covers are 'You Keep Me Hangin' On' by Kim Wilde, 'Where Did Our Love Go?' and 'Tainted Love' by Soft Cell, 'Spirit in the Sky' by Doctor and the Medics, 'Harlem Shuffle' by The Rolling Stones, 'Dancing in the Street' by David Bowie and Mick Jagger, 'The Shoop Shoop Song (It's in His Kiss)' by Cher, and 'The Lion Sleeps Tonight' by Tight Fit.
The 1990s brought a 1970s revival. The films Dazed and Confused, Detroit Rock City, Casino, The Stoned Age, The Brady Bunch Movie and its sequel (both of which were remakes of the popular early '70s TV show The Brady Bunch), and Boogie Nights (in which the first part of this film took place in the late '70s) were released, along with a revival of 1970s disco and pop led by artists such as the A*Teens, the Spice Girls, and Jamiroquai; Lenny Kravitz's 'It Ain't Over 'Til It's Over' being inspired by Earth, Wind and Fire and Philly soul; a revival of sideburns, bell bottoms, and afro (worn by Kravitz); the debut of the television series That '70s Show; and 1970s hits covered by various artists. Examples of such covers are 'I Can See Clearly Now' by Jimmy Cliff, 'Baby I Love Your Way' by Big Mountain, 'Turn the Beat Around' by Gloria Estefan, 'Wild World' by Mr. Big, 'O-o-h Child' by Dino, 'Wild Night' by John Mellencamp and Meshell Ndegeocello, 'Oh Girl' by Paul Young, 'Easy' by Faith No More, 'Have You Seen Her' by MC Hammer, 'Emotion' by the Bee Gees, 'Killing Me Softly with His Song' by Fugees, 'Love Rollercoaster' by Red Hot Chili Peppers, and 'It Only Takes a Minute' by Take That. Samples of 1970s songs were also used in hip-hop songs in the 1990s (and 2000s), most notably in the 1990s hip-hop genre G-funk and in songs such as 'Gangsta's Paradise' by Coolio.
The late 1990s began the 1980s revival, which grew into the 2000s. The 1980s-themed films Grosse Pointe Blank, The Wedding Singer, Boogie Nights (the second part of this film took place in the early '80s), and Romy and Michele's High School Reunion were released in the late 1990s. 1980s-themed films such as Wet Hot American Summer were released in the 2000s. This craze also brought about revivals of The Transformers, G.I. Joe, Speed Racer, and Voltron. The post-punk revival coincided with this, as the genre was originally popular (albeit underground) in the 1980s. There also was That '80s Show and Freaks and Geeks, but both shows were short-lived (despite the latter's critical acclaim). I Love the '80s, a part of a series of decade retrospectives, became the most popular of the series and spawned two sequel series.
The 2010s have seen a revival of both the 1980s and 1990s. The television shows The Goldbergs, The Carrie Diaries, GLOW, Stranger Things, Everything Sucks! and Hindsight debuted. The film Everybody Wants Some was released. A trend for 1980s second wave synthpop is growing along with 1990s-style future house and nu-disco songs by such artists as Katy Perry, Justin Timberlake, and Bruno Mars. Numerous 1990s television shows and movies have been revived, along with some films from the 1980s such as Footloose, Ghostbusters, Adventures in Babysitting, Dirty Dancing, and The Smurfs. There was also an I Love the '90s series that was released in the mid-2000s. The Teen Titans Go! episode '40% 40% 20%' has a song titled 'The Night Begins to Shine', which is made in the style of the 1980s. 1980s-influenced songs include 'Shut Up and Dance by Walk the Moon, '24K Magic' by Bruno Mars, 'Uptown Funk' by Mark Ronson featuring Bruno Mars. Also, new jack swing came back in style in early 2018 with 'Finesse' by Bruno Mars featuring Cardi B.
The 2010s have also seen a revival of the mid-late 1990s and early 2000s, overlapping somewhat with the 1990s revivals. Sequels to 2000s films, such as Anchorman 2, Finding Dory, and Monsters University have been released ten years after the original films. Early-to-mid 2000s television series, such as Arrested Development, Invader Zim, Hey Arnold, That's So Raven, Ben 10, Prison Break, and Samurai Jack have been, or are being, revived. Some believe this a case of the 'nostalgia cycle' becoming shorter, as the generation that grew up with this media in their childhoods is now in their early-to-mid 20s.[23]
Retrogaming[edit]
Retrogaming is a pastime which is becoming increasingly popular where individuals play video games on vintage computers or vintage game consoles. What constitutes a vintage or retro machine is sometimes open to debate, but typically, most retro gamers are interested in Commodore 64, Amiga 500, Atari 2600, NES, Sega Genesis/Mega Drive, PlayStation, Nintendo 64, Dreamcast, SNES, and classic Game Boy games and consoles. Emulation often plays a part in retrogaming if the original hardware is unavailable.
Retro erotica (photography)[edit]
Retro erotica is usually photography in the style of pinups or pornography typically dating from the 1970s or earlier. It ranges from hardcore to non-nude pinup style photography, often featuring lingerie such as girdles, bullet bras and garter belts and hosiery with hairstyles, makeup, and props fashioned after those periods. Some aficionados distinguish retro (modern photography in an older style) from vintage (actual period photos or film) while others conflate the two as either retro or vintage. There are a number of websites dedicated to both types.
Aircraft[edit]
A QantasBoeing 737-800 (VH-XZP) retrojet seen at Sydney Airport
A handful of airlines have chosen to paint a historical livery on a single selected aircraft in their modern fleet, typically as a marketing device or to commemorate an anniversary.[24][25]
See also[edit]
Notes[edit]
- ^Woodham 2004
- ^Dermody, Breathnach 2009, p. 7
- ^Baker 2012, p. 622
- ^Guffey 2006, p. 25
- ^'French definition of 'rétro''. Cnrtl.fr. 1978-09-11. Retrieved 2011-11-20.
- ^Walker, John. (1992) 'Retro'. Glossary of Art, Architecture & Design since 1945, 3rd. ed.
- ^Elizabeth E. Guffey, Retro: The Culture of Revival, pp. 9â22
- ^Baudrillard. p. 43
- ^E. Guffey 2006
- ^Guffey 2006, p. 20
- ^Dermody, Breathnach 2009, p. 15
- ^Guffey 2006, p. 16
- ^Baker 2012, p. 624
- ^Dermody, Breathnach 2009, p. 7
- ^Dermody and Breathnach 2009, p. 11
- ^Baker 2012, p. 622
- ^Dermody, Breathnach 2009, pp. 7â8
- ^Heller and Lasky, 1993
- ^Dermody, Breathnach 2009, pp. 8-10
- ^Dermody, Breathnach 2009, p. 16
- ^Lauren Cochrane. 'Dr Martens enjoy comeback with best-selling season ever | Fashion'. The Guardian. Retrieved 2014-01-05.
- ^'Bookulating Suggest-O-Mometer'. Archived from the original on 2008-12-01. Retrieved 2011-10-05.
- ^TheWire.com
- ^Flynn, David (17 November 2014). 'Qantas reveals 'flying kangaroo' livery on Boeing 737'. Retrieved 31 May 2015.
- ^Mutzabaugh, Ben (18 April 2014). 'Happy 85th: LOT adds 'RetroJET' livery to Embraer E175'. USA Today. Retrieved 31 May 2015.
References[edit]
- Baudrillard, Jean (1995). Simulacra and Simulation. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN978-0-472-06521-9.
- Collins, James C (1989). Uncommon Cultures: Popular Culture and Post-Modernism. New York/London: Routledge. ISBN978-0-415-90137-6.
- Eco, Umberto (1986). Travels in Hyperreality. New York: Harcourt. ISBN978-0-15-191079-3.
- Eco, Umberto (1988). The Structure of Bad Taste. Amsterdam: Bert Bakker.
- Guffey, Elizabeth E (2006). Retro: The Culture of Revival. London: Reaktion. ISBN978-1-86189-290-4.
- Robyns, Clem (1991). 'Beyond the first dimension: recent tendencies in popular culture studies', in Joris Vlasselaers (Ed.) The Prince and the Frog, Leuven: ALW, 14-32.
- Ross, Andrew (1989). No Respect. Intellectuals and Popular Culture. New York/London: Routledge. ISBN978-0-415-90037-9.
- Samuel, Raphael (1994). Theatres of Memory. London: Verso. ISBN978-0-86091-209-5.
- Retro-Trader, 2002: Website listing and displaying many retro related items.
- Dermody, Brenda and Breathnach, Teresa (2009). New Retro: classic graphics, todayâs designs London: Thames & Hudson
- Baker, Sarah Elsie (2012). Retailing Retro. Class, cultural capital and the material practices of the (re)valuation of style in European Journal of Cultural Studies, 15: 621,
- Heller, Steven and Lasky, Julie (1993). Borrowed Design: The Use and Abuse of Historical Form, New York: Wiley
- Woodham, Jonathan M. (2004). A Dictionary of Modern Design. Oxford: Oxford University Press
External links[edit]
Look up retro in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. |
Retrieved from 'https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Retro_style&oldid=896550692'
Oppenheim Architecture has completed the Ayla Golf Academy and Clubhouse in Aqaba, Jordan, taking inspiration from the natural dunescapes and mountains of the surrounding desert as well as the architectural heritage of the ancient Bedouin. The 1,200-square-meter building forms part of a 44-square-kilometer leisure development, containing residential, commercial, and hotel space centered on the 18-hole golf course.
The distinct architectural form of the clubhouse establishes a connection with nature by capturing the elemental beauty of the rolling desert landscape. A massive concrete shell drapes over the program areas, enveloping the walls of each volume. The volumeâs curved shotcrete shell blends with the surrounding sand dunes, while openings in the shell offer views towards the Aqaba Mountains.
Across the openings, corten steel perforated screens filter the light, similar to the traditional Arabic âMashrabiya.â The triangular pattern of the openings is inspired by traditional Jordanian patterns, while the tones of the surrounding mountains are echoed in the colors of the shotcrete and metals.
The schemeâs construction was the result of a knowledge exchange program between the European office of Oppenheim Architecture and local workforce. Shotcrete pouring techniques were taught to workers in the first phases so that they could take ownership of the construction and obtain specialized skills. A local artist also helped shape the building by applying a traditional pigmentation technique to the interior surfaces, granting a raw, unadorned look that stays true to its context and inspiration.
1900 Vernacular Style Homes
Location: Aqaba, Jordan
Client: Ayla Oasis Development Company
Scope: Architecture, Interior Design
Land Area : 44 sq.km
Golf Academy Built-up Area: 1,200 sq.m
Architect: Oppenheim Architecture
Interior Designer: Oppenheim Architecture
Golf Consultant: Greg Norman
Landscape: Form Landscape Architects
Structure Consultant: WMM EngineersAG
Shotcrete Consultant: Greuter AG
Local Architect: Darb Architects and Engineers
General Contractor: Modern Tech Construction
Shotcrete Contractor: Nino Construction Engineers
Branding: Ilona Studio
Principals in charge: Chad Oppenheim, Beat Huesler
Project Contributors: Aleksandra Melion, Anthony Cerasoli, Tom Mckeogh, Ana Guedes Lebre, Rasem Kamal
Client: Ayla Oasis Development Company
Scope: Architecture, Interior Design
Land Area : 44 sq.km
Golf Academy Built-up Area: 1,200 sq.m
Architect: Oppenheim Architecture
Interior Designer: Oppenheim Architecture
Golf Consultant: Greg Norman
Landscape: Form Landscape Architects
Structure Consultant: WMM EngineersAG
Shotcrete Consultant: Greuter AG
Local Architect: Darb Architects and Engineers
General Contractor: Modern Tech Construction
Shotcrete Contractor: Nino Construction Engineers
Branding: Ilona Studio
Principals in charge: Chad Oppenheim, Beat Huesler
Project Contributors: Aleksandra Melion, Anthony Cerasoli, Tom Mckeogh, Ana Guedes Lebre, Rasem Kamal